Carbon nanodots (CNDs) owing to their hydrophilicity and multifunctionality and with ultrasmall size exhibit metal-like properties resulting in astounding catalytic performance. These nanostructures, typically less than 10 nm in diameter, possess unique physicochemical and electronic characteristics including tunable photoluminescence, high surface-to-volume ratio, abundant surface functional groups, and excellent electron transfer capabilities. Such properties have driven extensive global research into their application in heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis. Recent advances in synthesis techniques have enabled the production of carbon nanodots with controlled size, morphology, and surface chemistry, thereby enhancing their catalytic efficiency. Carbon nanodots exhibit exceptional performance as standalone catalysts, co-catalysts, and catalyst supports in photocatalytic degradation, electrocatalytic reactions, environmental remediation, and organic transformations. Their compatibility with green chemistry principles, low toxicity, and derivation from renewable precursors further enhance their significance in sustainable catalytic processes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the catalytic applications of carbon nanodots, with emphasis on mechanistic insights, structure–property relationships, hybrid catalytic systems, and emerging global research trends. The discussion highlights recent developments in photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, environmental catalysis, and synthetic chemistry, while also addressing challenges and prospects in this rapidly evolving field of nanocatalysis. Overall, CNDs are an ideal metal substitute in catalysis and nanotechnology. Their roles in electrocatalysis, namely, energy conversion and energy storage devices are unavoidable and exemplary. In almost all areas of energy sources, including biorefineries, CNDs are actively integrating with the catalysts and biocatalysts used in transesterification of lipids and fermentation of carbohydrates.

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1. Pulidindi IN, Gedanken A. Carbon nanoparticles based non-enzymatic glucose sensor. Int J Environ Anal Chem. 2014;94(1):28–35.
2. Banger A, Gautam S, Jadoun S, Jangid NK, Srivastava A, Pulidindi IN, et al. Synthetic methods and applications of carbon nanodots. Catalysts. 2023;13(5):858.
3. Mishra RK, Pulidindi IN, Kabha E, Gedanken A. In situ formation of carbon dots aids ampicillin sensing. Anal Methods. 2016;8(11):2441–7.
4. Pulidindi IN, Haritha SR, Veeraiyan DN. Ultra-small, highly fluorescent, nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon nanodots (N, B-CNDs) for catalytic application. Indian patent. File No. 202641011120; filed 2026 Mar 2.
5. Pulidindi IN, Haritha SR, Veeraiyan DN. Nitrogen enriched highly fluorescent carbon nanodots (N-CNDs) as sensor in biorefinery. Indian patent. File No. 202641011119; filed 2026 Mar 2.
6. Zaib M, Shabir K, Shahzadi T, Riaz T, Pulidindi IN. Biosynthesis of doped carbon dots-decorated MnO₂ nanocomposites using eucalyptus extract: Evaluation of catalytic activity. Arab J Sci Eng. 2024;49(7):9425–41.
7. Roy P, Chen PC, Periasamy AP, Chen YN, Chang HT. Photoluminescent carbon nanodots: Synthesis, physicochemical properties and analytical applications. Mater Today. 2015;18(8):447–58.
8. Langford D, Reva Y, Bo Y, Gubanov K, Wu M, Günay-Gürer A, et al. Improving photocatalytic hydrogen generation via polycitric acid-based carbon nanodots. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2025;64(13):e202418626.
9. Arul V, Chandrasekaran P, Sivaraman G, Sethuraman MG. Efficient green synthesis of N, B co-doped bright fluorescent carbon nanodots and their electrocatalytic and bio-imaging applications. Diam Relat Mater. 2021;116:108437.
10. Pulidindi IN, Haritha SR, Veeraiyan DN. Nitrogen and phosphorous doped highly fluorescent ultra-small carbon nanodots (N, P-CNDs) as soil fertility boosters. Indian patent. (Being filed).
11. Lin J, Liu R, Li X, Zhao Y, Kong L, Li Y, et al. Cobalt-doped carbon nanodots as an interfacial modifier for efficient solar-driven water splitting. Appl Catal B Environ. 2024;343:123544.
12. Tangy A, Kumar VB, Pulidindi IN, Kinel-Tahan Y, Yehoshua Y, Gedanken A. In-situ transesterification of Chlorella vulgaris using carbon-dot functionalized strontium oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst under microwave irradiation. Energy Fuels. 2016 Dec 15;30(12):10602–10.
13. Choi S, Han DY, Bok T, Hwang C, Kwak MJ, Yim JH, et al. Catalytic tin nanodots in hard carbon structures for enhanced volumetric and power density batteries. ACS Nano. 2025;19(10):10476–88.
14. Alam MW, Saravanan P, Shah F, Rosaiah P, Prakash NG, Ko TJ, et al. Bio-genic synthesis of nitrogen-doped carbon nanodots using Aristolochia bractealata for MO catalytic activity and security ink. Waste Biomass Valorization. 2025;16(6):3143–53.
15. Hamid M, Kaus NH, Isnaeni I, Susilawati S, Wijoyo H, Wahyuni A, et al. Development of carbon nanodots from durian waste incorporated with first-row transition metals for efficient degradation of microplastics in oral care products. Diam Relat Mater. 2025;113238.
16. Han Y, Zhang Y, Wu S, Jalalah M, Alsareii SA, Yin Y, et al. Co-assembly of peptides and carbon nanodots: Sensitive analysis of transglutaminase 2. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13(31):36919–25.
17. Liu Z, Wang J, Chen Z, Wang Y. Carbon dots based nanozymes: Synthesis, structure, catalytic mechanisms and applications. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2025;115194.
18. Sánchez-Pineda PA, López-Pacheco IY, Villalba-Rodríguez AM, Godínez-Alemán JA, González-González RB, Parra-Saldívar R, et al. Enhancing the production of PHA in Scenedesmus sp. by the addition of green synthesized nitrogen, phosphorus, and nitrogen–phosphorus-doped carbon dots. Biotechnol Biofuels Bioprod. 2024;17(1):77.
19. Wang Z, Pei GX, Qi H, Zhang S, Liu C, Li Z, et al. Solar hydrogen generation over carbon nitride photocatalyst promoted by water-soluble carbon dots. ChemPhotoChem. 2022;6(12):e202200176.
20. Zhao X, Wei J, Song T, Wang Z, Yang D, Zhang X, et al. Computational insights into carbon dots: Evolution of structural models and structure–activity relationships. Chem Eng J. 2024;481:148779.
21. Sharma M, Kafle SR, Singh A, Chakraborty A, Kim BS. Carbon quantum dots for efficient hydrogen production: A critical review. ChemCatChem. 2024;16(16):e202400056.
22. Zhang H, An Y, Li S, Li Z, Geng D, Sha D, et al. Honeycomb porous N-doped carbon synergized with ultrafine Ni₂P electrocatalyst for boosting polysulfide conversion in lithium–sulfur batteries. Electrochim Acta. 2023;445:142047.
23. Zhang L, Wang J, Zhang J, Xie Y, Li Z. Carbon dots: Preparation and their application in electrocatalytic oxygen reduction. Korean J Chem Eng. 2025;1–4.
24. Backes CW, Reis FB, Strapasson GB, Assis M, Longo E, Weibel DE. Green synthesis of carbon quantum dots for enhancing photocatalytic activity: Hydrogen/oxygen evolution and dye photodegradation. Catal Today. 2025;443:114996.
25. Zhang J, Lin Y, Wu S, Hou X, Zheng C, Wu P, et al. Self-photo-oxidation for extending visible light absorption of carbon dots and oxidase-like activity. Carbon. 2021;182:537–44.
26. Dhanush C, Aravind MK, Ashokkumar B, Sethuraman MG. Synthesis of blue emissive fluorescent nitrogen doped carbon dots from Annona squamosa fruit extract and their diverse applications in catalysis and bio-imaging. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem. 2022;432:114097.
27. Yang Y, Chen G, Yu J, He M, An M, Lei T, et al. Fe, N-doped carbon dots/RF in self-Fenton cascade reaction: Improved photodegradation mechanism and toxicity evaluation. J Environ Chem Eng. 2024;12(6):114151.
28. Luo D, Zhang J, Liu L, Xu Q, Wu M, Zhang L, et al. Pyrrolic-N enriched carbon quantum dots enhance microbial electrosynthesis for CO₂-to-acetate conversion via photoelectricity-driven biohybrid system. J Environ Chem Eng. 2025;120582.
29. Guye ME, Dabaro MD, Kim H. Efficient hydrogen generation via NaBH₄ methanolysis: Synergistic role of Fe²⁺ ions and biomass-derived carbon nanodots in ZnO/Fe₂O₃@C nanocomposites. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2026;207:153463.
30. Shah SK, ElMetwally AE, Zhou Y, Mintz KJ, Bachas LG, Micic M, et al. Photocatalytic degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenol and parathion using gel-like carbon dots under simulated solar irradiation. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2025;138987.
31. Domingo-Tafalla B, Martínez-Ferrero E, Franco F, Palomares-Gil E. Applications of carbon dots for the photocatalytic and electrocatalytic reduction of CO₂. Molecules. 2022;27(3):1081.
32. Macpherson S, Lawson T, Abfalterer A, Andrich P, Lage A, Reisner E, et al. Influence of electron donors on the charge transfer dynamics of carbon nanodots in photocatalytic systems. ACS Catal. 2024;14(16):12006–15.
33. Özen C, Zeytünlüoğlu A, Akkaya A. Applications of β-cyclodextrin-linked carbon nanodots and future perspectives. In: Cyclodextrins for chemosensing. Cham: Springer; 2025. p. 275–93.

Carbon nanodots (CNDs) owing to their hydrophilicity and multifunctionality and with ultrasmall size exhibit metal-like properties resulting in astounding catalytic performance. These nanostructures, typically less than 10 nm in diameter, possess unique physicochemical and electronic characteristics including tunable photoluminescence, high surface-to-volume ratio, abundant surface functional groups, and excellent electron transfer capabilities. Such properties have driven extensive global research into their application in heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis. Recent advances in synthesis techniques have enabled the production of carbon nanodots with controlled size, morphology, and surface chemistry, thereby enhancing their catalytic efficiency. Carbon nanodots exhibit exceptional performance as standalone catalysts, co-catalysts, and catalyst supports in photocatalytic degradation, electrocatalytic reactions, environmental remediation, and organic transformations. Their compatibility with green chemistry principles, low toxicity, and derivation from renewable precursors further enhance their significance in sustainable catalytic processes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the catalytic applications of carbon nanodots, with emphasis on mechanistic insights, structure–property relationships, hybrid catalytic systems, and emerging global research trends. The discussion highlights recent developments in photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, environmental catalysis, and synthetic chemistry, while also addressing challenges and prospects in this rapidly evolving field of nanocatalysis. Overall, CNDs are an ideal metal substitute in catalysis and nanotechnology. Their roles in electrocatalysis, namely, energy conversion and energy storage devices are unavoidable and exemplary. In almost all areas of energy sources, including biorefineries, CNDs are actively integrating with the catalysts and biocatalysts used in transesterification of lipids and fermentation of carbohydrates.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Pulidindi IN, Gedanken A. Carbon nanoparticles based non-enzymatic glucose sensor. Int J Environ Anal Chem. 2014;94(1):28–35.
2. Banger A, Gautam S, Jadoun S, Jangid NK, Srivastava A, Pulidindi IN, et al. Synthetic methods and applications of carbon nanodots. Catalysts. 2023;13(5):858.
3. Mishra RK, Pulidindi IN, Kabha E, Gedanken A. In situ formation of carbon dots aids ampicillin sensing. Anal Methods. 2016;8(11):2441–7.
4. Pulidindi IN, Haritha SR, Veeraiyan DN. Ultra-small, highly fluorescent, nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon nanodots (N, B-CNDs) for catalytic application. Indian patent. File No. 202641011120; filed 2026 Mar 2.
5. Pulidindi IN, Haritha SR, Veeraiyan DN. Nitrogen enriched highly fluorescent carbon nanodots (N-CNDs) as sensor in biorefinery. Indian patent. File No. 202641011119; filed 2026 Mar 2.
6. Zaib M, Shabir K, Shahzadi T, Riaz T, Pulidindi IN. Biosynthesis of doped carbon dots-decorated MnO₂ nanocomposites using eucalyptus extract: Evaluation of catalytic activity. Arab J Sci Eng. 2024;49(7):9425–41.
7. Roy P, Chen PC, Periasamy AP, Chen YN, Chang HT. Photoluminescent carbon nanodots: Synthesis, physicochemical properties and analytical applications. Mater Today. 2015;18(8):447–58.
8. Langford D, Reva Y, Bo Y, Gubanov K, Wu M, Günay-Gürer A, et al. Improving photocatalytic hydrogen generation via polycitric acid-based carbon nanodots. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2025;64(13):e202418626.
9. Arul V, Chandrasekaran P, Sivaraman G, Sethuraman MG. Efficient green synthesis of N, B co-doped bright fluorescent carbon nanodots and their electrocatalytic and bio-imaging applications. Diam Relat Mater. 2021;116:108437.
10. Pulidindi IN, Haritha SR, Veeraiyan DN. Nitrogen and phosphorous doped highly fluorescent ultra-small carbon nanodots (N, P-CNDs) as soil fertility boosters. Indian patent. (Being filed).
11. Lin J, Liu R, Li X, Zhao Y, Kong L, Li Y, et al. Cobalt-doped carbon nanodots as an interfacial modifier for efficient solar-driven water splitting. Appl Catal B Environ. 2024;343:123544.
12. Tangy A, Kumar VB, Pulidindi IN, Kinel-Tahan Y, Yehoshua Y, Gedanken A. In-situ transesterification of Chlorella vulgaris using carbon-dot functionalized strontium oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst under microwave irradiation. Energy Fuels. 2016 Dec 15;30(12):10602–10.
13. Choi S, Han DY, Bok T, Hwang C, Kwak MJ, Yim JH, et al. Catalytic tin nanodots in hard carbon structures for enhanced volumetric and power density batteries. ACS Nano. 2025;19(10):10476–88.
14. Alam MW, Saravanan P, Shah F, Rosaiah P, Prakash NG, Ko TJ, et al. Bio-genic synthesis of nitrogen-doped carbon nanodots using Aristolochia bractealata for MO catalytic activity and security ink. Waste Biomass Valorization. 2025;16(6):3143–53.
15. Hamid M, Kaus NH, Isnaeni I, Susilawati S, Wijoyo H, Wahyuni A, et al. Development of carbon nanodots from durian waste incorporated with first-row transition metals for efficient degradation of microplastics in oral care products. Diam Relat Mater. 2025;113238.
16. Han Y, Zhang Y, Wu S, Jalalah M, Alsareii SA, Yin Y, et al. Co-assembly of peptides and carbon nanodots: Sensitive analysis of transglutaminase 2. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13(31):36919–25.
17. Liu Z, Wang J, Chen Z, Wang Y. Carbon dots based nanozymes: Synthesis, structure, catalytic mechanisms and applications. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2025;115194.
18. Sánchez-Pineda PA, López-Pacheco IY, Villalba-Rodríguez AM, Godínez-Alemán JA, González-González RB, Parra-Saldívar R, et al. Enhancing the production of PHA in Scenedesmus sp. by the addition of green synthesized nitrogen, phosphorus, and nitrogen–phosphorus-doped carbon dots. Biotechnol Biofuels Bioprod. 2024;17(1):77.
19. Wang Z, Pei GX, Qi H, Zhang S, Liu C, Li Z, et al. Solar hydrogen generation over carbon nitride photocatalyst promoted by water-soluble carbon dots. ChemPhotoChem. 2022;6(12):e202200176.
20. Zhao X, Wei J, Song T, Wang Z, Yang D, Zhang X, et al. Computational insights into carbon dots: Evolution of structural models and structure–activity relationships. Chem Eng J. 2024;481:148779.
21. Sharma M, Kafle SR, Singh A, Chakraborty A, Kim BS. Carbon quantum dots for efficient hydrogen production: A critical review. ChemCatChem. 2024;16(16):e202400056.
22. Zhang H, An Y, Li S, Li Z, Geng D, Sha D, et al. Honeycomb porous N-doped carbon synergized with ultrafine Ni₂P electrocatalyst for boosting polysulfide conversion in lithium–sulfur batteries. Electrochim Acta. 2023;445:142047.
23. Zhang L, Wang J, Zhang J, Xie Y, Li Z. Carbon dots: Preparation and their application in electrocatalytic oxygen reduction. Korean J Chem Eng. 2025;1–4.
24. Backes CW, Reis FB, Strapasson GB, Assis M, Longo E, Weibel DE. Green synthesis of carbon quantum dots for enhancing photocatalytic activity: Hydrogen/oxygen evolution and dye photodegradation. Catal Today. 2025;443:114996.
25. Zhang J, Lin Y, Wu S, Hou X, Zheng C, Wu P, et al. Self-photo-oxidation for extending visible light absorption of carbon dots and oxidase-like activity. Carbon. 2021;182:537–44.
26. Dhanush C, Aravind MK, Ashokkumar B, Sethuraman MG. Synthesis of blue emissive fluorescent nitrogen doped carbon dots from Annona squamosa fruit extract and their diverse applications in catalysis and bio-imaging. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem. 2022;432:114097.
27. Yang Y, Chen G, Yu J, He M, An M, Lei T, et al. Fe, N-doped carbon dots/RF in self-Fenton cascade reaction: Improved photodegradation mechanism and toxicity evaluation. J Environ Chem Eng. 2024;12(6):114151.
28. Luo D, Zhang J, Liu L, Xu Q, Wu M, Zhang L, et al. Pyrrolic-N enriched carbon quantum dots enhance microbial electrosynthesis for CO₂-to-acetate conversion via photoelectricity-driven biohybrid system. J Environ Chem Eng. 2025;120582.
29. Guye ME, Dabaro MD, Kim H. Efficient hydrogen generation via NaBH₄ methanolysis: Synergistic role of Fe²⁺ ions and biomass-derived carbon nanodots in ZnO/Fe₂O₃@C nanocomposites. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2026;207:153463.
30. Shah SK, ElMetwally AE, Zhou Y, Mintz KJ, Bachas LG, Micic M, et al. Photocatalytic degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenol and parathion using gel-like carbon dots under simulated solar irradiation. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2025;138987.
31. Domingo-Tafalla B, Martínez-Ferrero E, Franco F, Palomares-Gil E. Applications of carbon dots for the photocatalytic and electrocatalytic reduction of CO₂. Molecules. 2022;27(3):1081.
32. Macpherson S, Lawson T, Abfalterer A, Andrich P, Lage A, Reisner E, et al. Influence of electron donors on the charge transfer dynamics of carbon nanodots in photocatalytic systems. ACS Catal. 2024;14(16):12006–15.
33. Özen C, Zeytünlüoğlu A, Akkaya A. Applications of β-cyclodextrin-linked carbon nanodots and future perspectives. In: Cyclodextrins for chemosensing. Cham: Springer; 2025. p. 275–93.