Equal channel angular pressing is a metal forming process. It serves as a strengthening treatment through which ductile metals can be processed to refine their grain and subgrain structure. This process improves the mechanical performance of metals, including tensile strength, stress-controlled fatigue strength, and resistance to fatigue crack propagation. Equal channel angular pressing is one of the severe plastic deformation methods employed to produce ultrafine-grained materials. In this method, a large shear strain is imparted to the material without altering its cross-sectional dimensions. Aluminum alloys are promising lightweight, high-strength materials in which precipitation strengthening can be achieved. In this study, equal channel angular pressing was employed to improve the strength of the Al alloy. The ECAP process was performed using a die with an internal channel angle (Φ) of 120° and an outer arc curvature (Ψ) of 30°. Optical microscopy was employed to examine the microstructures before and after equal channel angular pressing. Microhardness testing and tensile experiments were performed to evaluate the mechanical properties. In the homogenized state, coarse grains with an average size of approximately 180 μm were observed, the grain size reduced to approximately 2 μm. The microhardness and strength of the alloy increased after ECAP processing. In the homogenized condition, the alloy exhibited a microhardness of 95 Hv. After equal channel angular pressing, the microhardness of the alloy increased to 180 Hv. In the homogenized state, the alloy exhibited an ultimate tensile strength of 120 MPa, which rose to 205 MPa following ECAP processing.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Ruslan Z. Valiev, Terence G. Langdon, Principles of equal-channel angular pressing as a processing tool for grain refinement, Progress in Materials Science, Volume 51, Issue 7, 2006, Pages 881-981.
2. Valiev, R. Islamgaliev, and I. Alexandrov, Bulk nanostructured materials from severe plastic deformation, vol. 45, Issue 2, 2000.
3. A. Smirnova, N.A., Levit, V.I., Pilyugin, V.I., Kuznetsov, R.I., Davydova, L.S., Sazonova, “Evolution of the structure of f.c.c. single crystal subjected to strong plastic deformation,” Fiz. Met., vol. 61, Issue 1170–1177, 1986.
4. M. Segal, V.I. Raznikov, “Plastic working of metals by simple shear,” Russ. Metall. I, pp. 99–106, 1981.
5. R. J. Richert, “A new method for unlimited deformation of metals and alloys,” Aluminium, vol. 62, Issue. 8, (1986) pp. 604–607.
6. Saito, N. Tsuji, H. Utsunomiya, T. Sakai, and R. G. Hong, “Ultra-fine grained bulk aluminium produced by accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) process,” Scr. Mater., vol. 39, Issue 9, (1998) pp. 1221–1227.
7. Y. Huang, Y. T. Zhu, H. Jiang, and T. C. Lowe, “Microstructures and dislocation configurations in nanostructured Cu processed by repetitive corrugation and straightening,” Acta Mater., vol. 49, Issue 9, (2001)pp. 1497–1505.
8. Shin, D. H., Park, Y. Kim, and K. Park, “Constrained groove pressing and its application to grain refinement of aluminium,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 328, (2002) pp. 98–103.
9. A. Salishchev, O. R. Valiakhmetov, and R. M. Galeyev, “Formation of submicrocrystalline structure in the titanium alloy VT8 and its influence on mechanical properties,” J. Mater. Sci., vol. 28, Issue 11, (1993) pp. 2898–2902.
10. Kutz, Mechanical Engineers Handbook: Materials and Mechanical Design, A Third edit. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
11. H. Zhao, X. Z. Liao, Z. Jin, R. Z. Valiev, and Y. T. Zhu, “Microstructures and mechanical properties of ultrafine grained 7075 Al alloy processed by ECAP and their evolutions during annealing,” Acta Mater., vol. 52, (2004) Issue 4589–4599.
12. Gopala Krishna, N. Singh, K. Venkateswarlu, and K. C. Hari Kumar, “Tensile behaviour of ultrafine-grained Al-4Zn-2Mg alloy produced by cryorolling,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., vol. 20, Issue 9, (2011) pp. 1569–1574.
13. Valiev, “Nano structuring of metals by severe plastic deformation for advanced properties,” Nat. Mater., vol. 3, Issue 8, (2004) pp. 511–516.
14. T. Zehetbauer, M. J., Zhu, Bulk Nanostructured Materials. 2009.
15. Iwahashi, J. Wang, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “Principle of Equal-Channel Angular Pressing for the Processing of Ultrafine Grained Materials,” Scr. Mater., vol. 35, Issue 2, (1996) pp. 143–146.
16. M. Segal, “Materials processing by simple shear,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 197, pp. 157–164, 1995.
17. Furuno, H. Akamatsu, K. Oh-Ishi, M. Furukawa, Z. Horita, and T. G. Langdon, “Microstructural development in equal-channel angular pressing using a 60° die,” Acta Mater., vol. 52, (2004) pp. 2497–2507.
18. Nakashima, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “Development of a multipass facility for equal-channel angular processing to high total strains,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 281, Issue 1–2, (2000) pp. 82–87.
19. Furukawa, Y. Iwahashi, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “The shearing characteristics associated with equal-channel angular pressing,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 257, (1998) pp. 328–332.
20. Iwahashi, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “The Process of Grain Refinement in Equal Channel Angular Pressing,” Acta Mater., vol. 46, Issue 9, (1998) pp. 3317–3331.
21. Azushima, R. Kopp, A. Korhonen, D.Y. Yang, F. Miccari, G.D. Lahoti, P. Groche, J. Yanagimoto, N. Tsuji, A. Rosochowski, A. Yanagida, "Severe plastic deformation (SPD) processes for metals", CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 57 (2008) 716-735.
22. Z. Valiev, Y. Estrin, Z. Horita, T.G. Langdon, M.J. Zehetbauer, Y.T. Zhu, "Producing bulk ultrafine-grained materials by severe plastic deformation", JOM, 58 (2006) 33-39.
23. Tsuji, Y. Saito, S.H. Lee, Y. Minamino, "ARB (Accumulative Roll-Bonding) and other new techniques to produce bulk ultrafine grained materials", Adv. Eng. Mater., 5 (2003) 338-344.
24. Saito, H. Utsunomiya, N. Tsuji, T. Sakai, "Novel ultra-high straining process for bulk materials - development of the accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) process", Acta Mater., 47 (1999) 579-583.
25. Edalati, Z. Horita, "High-pressure torsion of pure metals: Influence of atomic bond parameters and stacking fault energy on grain size and correlation with hardness", Acta Mater., 59 (2011) 6831-6836.
26. P. Zhilyaev, T.G. Langdon, "Using high-pressure torsion for metal processing: Fundamentals and applications", Prog. Mater. Sci., 53 (2008) 893-979.
27. Z. Valiev, T.G. Langdon, "Principles of equal-channel angular pressing as a processing tool for grain refinement", Prog. Mater. Sci., 51 (2006) 881-981.
28. M. Segal, "Equal channel angular extrusion: from macromechanics to structural nanotechnology", Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 271 (1999) 322-333.
29. Djavanroodi, H. Ahmadian, R. Naseri, K. Koohkan, M. Ebrahimi, “ Experimental investigation of ultrasonic assisted equal channel angular pressing process”,Elsevier archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016)249–255
30. Osman Konuk,H. Erol Akata, “A study on the application of the ECAP to Surface plating”, International journal of electronics; mechanical and mechatronics engineering vol.3 num 4 pp.(625-630).
31. A. Parshikov, A.I. Rudskoy, A.M. Zolotov and O.V. Tolochko, “Technological problems of equal channel Angular pressing”,Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 34 (2013) 26-36.
32. Denis Alexandrovich Chemezov, Anzhelika Vladimirovna Bayakina, Ekaterina Dmitrievna Bayakina, “Surface stress model made of ti-6al-4v alloy processed By equal channel angular pressing”, international scientific journal theoretical & applied science p-issn: 2308-4944 (print) e issn: 2409-0085 (online) year: 2015 issue: 05 volume: 25
33. Maria Z. Borisova, Sofia P. Yakovleva, Afanasiy M. Ivanov, “Equal Channel Angular Pressing, its Effect on Structure and Properties of the Constructional Steel St3”, Solid State Phenomena Vol. 114 (2006) pp 97-100
34. R. Fang, Z.F. Zhang, S.D. Wu, C.X. Huang, H. Zhang, N.Q. Zhao, J.J.Li “Effect of equal channel angular pressing on tensile properties and fracture modes of casting Al–Cu alloys”, Materials Science and Engineering A 426 (2006) 305–313
35. Hesam Ghourchibeigy, Mohammad Sadegh Haghighat Nia , Ali Shokuhfar , Fatemeh Arabi, Mehrdad Arjmand, “Modifying Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) for Cu-Al-Ni Shape Memory”, 2010 International Conference on Nanotechnology and Biosensors IPCBEE vol.2 (2011) © (2011) IACSIT Press, Singapore
36. Hyoung Seop Kim, Pham Quang, Min Hong Seo, Sun Ig Hong,Kyeong Ho Baik, Hong Rho Lee and Do Minh Nghiep, “Process Modelling of Equal Channel Angular Pressing for Ultrafine Grained Materials”, Materials Transactions, Vol. 45, No. 7 (2004) pp. 2172 to 2176.
37. Chegini, A. Fallahi, M.H. Shaeri, “Effect of Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) on Wear Behavior of Al-7075 Alloy”, 5th International Biennial Conference on Ultrafine Grained and Nanostructured Materials, UFGNSM15, Procedia Materials Science 11 ( 2015 ) 95 – 100
38. Woo Jin Kim, Hyo Tae Jeong, “Grain-Size Strengthening in Equal-Channel-Angular-Pressing Processed AZ31 Mg Alloys with a Constant Texture”, Materials Transactions, Vol. 46, No. 2 (2005) pp. 251 to 258
39. Mitsak, B. Aour, F. Khelil, “Numerical Investigation of Plastic Deformation in Two-turn Equal Channel Angular Extrusion”, Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research Vol. 4, No. 6, 2014, 728-733.
40. Si-Young Chang, Ki-Seung Lee, Seung Kyun Ryu, Kyung-Tae Park and Dong Hyuk Shin , “Effect of Equal Channel Angular Pressing on the Distribution of Reinforcements in the Discontinuous Metal Matrix Composites”, Materials Transactions, Vol. 43, No. 4 (2002) pp. 757 to 761.
41. Ondrej skleni, sediv ckayb, viktor bene s, petrpon zil, petrkr al, aclav “Quantitative characterization of microstructure of pure copper processed by ecap", image anal stereol 2013;32:65-75.
42. P. Minneci, E.A. Lass, J.R. Bunn, H. Choo, C.J. Rawn, Copper-based alloys for structural high-heat-flux applications: a review of development, properties, and performance of Cu-rich Cu–Cr–Nb alloys. Int. Mater. Rev. 66, 394–425 (2021).
43. Yang, L. Wang, L. Snead, S.J. Zinkle, Development of novel Cu–Cr–Nb–Zr alloys with the aid of computational thermodynamics. Mater. Des. 156, 370–380 (2018).
44. R. Anderson, J.R. Groza, Microstructural size effects in high-strength high-conductivity Cu–Cr–Nb alloys. Metall Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 32, 1211–1223 (2001).
45. R. Anderson, J.R. Groza, R.L. Dreshfield, D. Ellis, High-performance dispersion-strengthened Cu-8 Cr-4 Nb alloy. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 26, 2197–2206 (1995).
46. Guo, Z. Xiao, W. Qiu, Z. Li, Z. Zhao, X. Wang, Y. Jiang, Microstructure and properties of Cu–Cr–Nb alloy with high strength, high electrical conductivity and good softening resistance performance at elevated temperature. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 749, 281–290 (2019).
47. Laporte, A. Mortensen, Intermediate temperature embrittlement of copper alloys. Int. Mater. Rev. 54, 94–116 (2009).
48. Chenna Krishna, K.V. Radhika, K.T. Tharian, M. Swathi Kiranmayee, G. Sudarshan Rao, A.K. Jha, B. Pant, Dynamic Embrittlement in Cu–Cr–Zr–Ti alloy: evidence of intergranular segregation of sulphur. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 22, 2331–2336 (2013).
49. Li, B.G. Thomas, J.F. Stubbins, Modeling creep and fatigue of copper alloys. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 31, 2491–2502 (2000).
50. Li, S.J. Zinkle, 4.20—physical and mechanical properties of copper and copper alloys. Compr. Nucl. Mater. 1–5, 667–690 (2012).
51. C. Groh, D.L. Ellis, W.S. Loewenthal, Comparison of GRCop-84 to other Cu alloys with high thermal conductivities. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 17, 594–606 (2007).
52. Zhong, S. Yang, P. Zhao, G. Xie, A. Wang, J. Li, W. Liu, Solidification characteristics and precipitation behavior of the Cu–Cr–Nb alloys. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 23, 882–893 (2023).
53. Zhou, Y. Yang, Q. Lei, R. Chen, S. Gong, Effect of fabrication methods on the microstructure and properties of a Cu–Cr–Nb alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 858, 144159 (2022)
54. Yang, Q. Lei, H. Liu, J. Hong, Z. Han, Q. An, J. Shan, X. Chen, H. Xu, Z. Xiao, S. Gong, Cr-based second phases in a high conductivity Cu–Cr–Nb alloy with high high-temperature strength. Mater. Des. 219, 110784 (2022).
55. C. Krishna, P. Muneshwar, B. Pant, R. Korla, Hot deformation behavior and processing map of Cu–Cr–Nb–Zr alloy. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 31, 1325–1337 (2021).
56. C. Krishna, P. Yasam, S. Dudala, S. Kotla, P. Muneshwar, B. Pant, R. Korla, Recrystallization behavior of cold-rolled Cu– Cr–Nb–Zr alloy investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 33, 136–143 (2023).
57. Huang, R.E. Logé, A review of dynamic recrystallization phenomena in metallic materials. Mater. Des. 111, 548–574 (2016).
58. I. Poliak, J.J. Jonas, A one-parameter approach to determining the critical conditions for the initiation of dynamic recrystallization. Acta Mater. 44, 127–136 (1996)
59. D. Ryan, H.J. McQueen, Dynamic softening mechanisms in 304 austenitic stainless steel. Can. Metall. Q. 29, 147–162 (1990).
60. I. Poliak, J.J. Jonas, Initiation of dynamic recrystallization in constant strain rate hot deformation. ISIJ Int. 43, 684–691 (2003).
61. Najafizadeh, J.J. Jonas, Predicting the critical stress for initiation of DRX—Najafizadfeh, Jonas. ISIJ Int. 46, 1679–1684 (2006).
62. Mirzadeh, A. Najafizadeh, Prediction of the critical conditions for initiation of dynamic recrystallization. Mater. Des. 31, 1174–1179 (2010).
63. M. Sellars, W.J. McTegart, On the mechanism of hot deformation. Acta Metall. 14, 1136–1138 (1966)
64. Zhang, H. Sun, A.A. Volinsky, B. Tian, K. Song, Z. Chai, P. Liu, Y. Liu, Dynamic recrystallization behavior and processing map of the Cu–Cr–Zr–Nd alloy. Springerplus. (2016).
65. Manonukul, F.P.E. Dunne, Initiation of dynamic recrystallization under inhomogeneous stress states in pure copper. Acta. Mater. 47, 4339–4354 (1999).
66. Y. Yang, W.J. Kim, The effect of addition of Sn to copper on hot compressive deformation mechanisms, microstructural evolution and processing maps. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 9, 749–761 (2020).
67. Gupta, S.H. Choi, Self-annealing phenomena in the cold-rolled and cryo-rolled copper alloys: a review. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2635, 012015 (2023).
68. Kaibyshev, T. Sakai, H. Miura, J.J. Jonas, A. Belyakov, Dynamic and post-dynamic recrystallization under hot, cold and severe plastic deformation conditions. Prog. Mater. Sci. 60, 130–207 (2013).
69. Dehghan-Manshadi, M.R. Barnett, P.D. Hodgson, Hot deformation and recrystallization of austenitic stainless steel: Part I. dynamic recrystallization, Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 39A, 1359–1370 (2008).

Equal channel angular pressing is a metal forming process. It serves as a strengthening treatment through which ductile metals can be processed to refine their grain and subgrain structure. This process improves the mechanical performance of metals, including tensile strength, stress-controlled fatigue strength, and resistance to fatigue crack propagation. Equal channel angular pressing is one of the severe plastic deformation methods employed to produce ultrafine-grained materials. In this method, a large shear strain is imparted to the material without altering its cross-sectional dimensions. Aluminum alloys are promising lightweight, high-strength materials in which precipitation strengthening can be achieved. In this study, equal channel angular pressing was employed to improve the strength of the Al alloy. The ECAP process was performed using a die with an internal channel angle (Φ) of 120° and an outer arc curvature (Ψ) of 30°. Optical microscopy was employed to examine the microstructures before and after equal channel angular pressing. Microhardness testing and tensile experiments were performed to evaluate the mechanical properties. In the homogenized state, coarse grains with an average size of approximately 180 μm were observed, the grain size reduced to approximately 2 μm. The microhardness and strength of the alloy increased after ECAP processing. In the homogenized condition, the alloy exhibited a microhardness of 95 Hv. After equal channel angular pressing, the microhardness of the alloy increased to 180 Hv. In the homogenized state, the alloy exhibited an ultimate tensile strength of 120 MPa, which rose to 205 MPa following ECAP processing.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Ruslan Z. Valiev, Terence G. Langdon, Principles of equal-channel angular pressing as a processing tool for grain refinement, Progress in Materials Science, Volume 51, Issue 7, 2006, Pages 881-981.
2. Valiev, R. Islamgaliev, and I. Alexandrov, Bulk nanostructured materials from severe plastic deformation, vol. 45, Issue 2, 2000.
3. A. Smirnova, N.A., Levit, V.I., Pilyugin, V.I., Kuznetsov, R.I., Davydova, L.S., Sazonova, “Evolution of the structure of f.c.c. single crystal subjected to strong plastic deformation,” Fiz. Met., vol. 61, Issue 1170–1177, 1986.
4. M. Segal, V.I. Raznikov, “Plastic working of metals by simple shear,” Russ. Metall. I, pp. 99–106, 1981.
5. R. J. Richert, “A new method for unlimited deformation of metals and alloys,” Aluminium, vol. 62, Issue. 8, (1986) pp. 604–607.
6. Saito, N. Tsuji, H. Utsunomiya, T. Sakai, and R. G. Hong, “Ultra-fine grained bulk aluminium produced by accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) process,” Scr. Mater., vol. 39, Issue 9, (1998) pp. 1221–1227.
7. Y. Huang, Y. T. Zhu, H. Jiang, and T. C. Lowe, “Microstructures and dislocation configurations in nanostructured Cu processed by repetitive corrugation and straightening,” Acta Mater., vol. 49, Issue 9, (2001)pp. 1497–1505.
8. Shin, D. H., Park, Y. Kim, and K. Park, “Constrained groove pressing and its application to grain refinement of aluminium,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 328, (2002) pp. 98–103.
9. A. Salishchev, O. R. Valiakhmetov, and R. M. Galeyev, “Formation of submicrocrystalline structure in the titanium alloy VT8 and its influence on mechanical properties,” J. Mater. Sci., vol. 28, Issue 11, (1993) pp. 2898–2902.
10. Kutz, Mechanical Engineers Handbook: Materials and Mechanical Design, A Third edit. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
11. H. Zhao, X. Z. Liao, Z. Jin, R. Z. Valiev, and Y. T. Zhu, “Microstructures and mechanical properties of ultrafine grained 7075 Al alloy processed by ECAP and their evolutions during annealing,” Acta Mater., vol. 52, (2004) Issue 4589–4599.
12. Gopala Krishna, N. Singh, K. Venkateswarlu, and K. C. Hari Kumar, “Tensile behaviour of ultrafine-grained Al-4Zn-2Mg alloy produced by cryorolling,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., vol. 20, Issue 9, (2011) pp. 1569–1574.
13. Valiev, “Nano structuring of metals by severe plastic deformation for advanced properties,” Nat. Mater., vol. 3, Issue 8, (2004) pp. 511–516.
14. T. Zehetbauer, M. J., Zhu, Bulk Nanostructured Materials. 2009.
15. Iwahashi, J. Wang, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “Principle of Equal-Channel Angular Pressing for the Processing of Ultrafine Grained Materials,” Scr. Mater., vol. 35, Issue 2, (1996) pp. 143–146.
16. M. Segal, “Materials processing by simple shear,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 197, pp. 157–164, 1995.
17. Furuno, H. Akamatsu, K. Oh-Ishi, M. Furukawa, Z. Horita, and T. G. Langdon, “Microstructural development in equal-channel angular pressing using a 60° die,” Acta Mater., vol. 52, (2004) pp. 2497–2507.
18. Nakashima, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “Development of a multipass facility for equal-channel angular processing to high total strains,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 281, Issue 1–2, (2000) pp. 82–87.
19. Furukawa, Y. Iwahashi, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “The shearing characteristics associated with equal-channel angular pressing,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 257, (1998) pp. 328–332.
20. Iwahashi, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, and T. G. Langdon, “The Process of Grain Refinement in Equal Channel Angular Pressing,” Acta Mater., vol. 46, Issue 9, (1998) pp. 3317–3331.
21. Azushima, R. Kopp, A. Korhonen, D.Y. Yang, F. Miccari, G.D. Lahoti, P. Groche, J. Yanagimoto, N. Tsuji, A. Rosochowski, A. Yanagida, "Severe plastic deformation (SPD) processes for metals", CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 57 (2008) 716-735.
22. Z. Valiev, Y. Estrin, Z. Horita, T.G. Langdon, M.J. Zehetbauer, Y.T. Zhu, "Producing bulk ultrafine-grained materials by severe plastic deformation", JOM, 58 (2006) 33-39.
23. Tsuji, Y. Saito, S.H. Lee, Y. Minamino, "ARB (Accumulative Roll-Bonding) and other new techniques to produce bulk ultrafine grained materials", Adv. Eng. Mater., 5 (2003) 338-344.
24. Saito, H. Utsunomiya, N. Tsuji, T. Sakai, "Novel ultra-high straining process for bulk materials - development of the accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) process", Acta Mater., 47 (1999) 579-583.
25. Edalati, Z. Horita, "High-pressure torsion of pure metals: Influence of atomic bond parameters and stacking fault energy on grain size and correlation with hardness", Acta Mater., 59 (2011) 6831-6836.
26. P. Zhilyaev, T.G. Langdon, "Using high-pressure torsion for metal processing: Fundamentals and applications", Prog. Mater. Sci., 53 (2008) 893-979.
27. Z. Valiev, T.G. Langdon, "Principles of equal-channel angular pressing as a processing tool for grain refinement", Prog. Mater. Sci., 51 (2006) 881-981.
28. M. Segal, "Equal channel angular extrusion: from macromechanics to structural nanotechnology", Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 271 (1999) 322-333.
29. Djavanroodi, H. Ahmadian, R. Naseri, K. Koohkan, M. Ebrahimi, “ Experimental investigation of ultrasonic assisted equal channel angular pressing process”,Elsevier archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016)249–255
30. Osman Konuk,H. Erol Akata, “A study on the application of the ECAP to Surface plating”, International journal of electronics; mechanical and mechatronics engineering vol.3 num 4 pp.(625-630).
31. A. Parshikov, A.I. Rudskoy, A.M. Zolotov and O.V. Tolochko, “Technological problems of equal channel Angular pressing”,Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 34 (2013) 26-36.
32. Denis Alexandrovich Chemezov, Anzhelika Vladimirovna Bayakina, Ekaterina Dmitrievna Bayakina, “Surface stress model made of ti-6al-4v alloy processed By equal channel angular pressing”, international scientific journal theoretical & applied science p-issn: 2308-4944 (print) e issn: 2409-0085 (online) year: 2015 issue: 05 volume: 25
33. Maria Z. Borisova, Sofia P. Yakovleva, Afanasiy M. Ivanov, “Equal Channel Angular Pressing, its Effect on Structure and Properties of the Constructional Steel St3”, Solid State Phenomena Vol. 114 (2006) pp 97-100
34. R. Fang, Z.F. Zhang, S.D. Wu, C.X. Huang, H. Zhang, N.Q. Zhao, J.J.Li “Effect of equal channel angular pressing on tensile properties and fracture modes of casting Al–Cu alloys”, Materials Science and Engineering A 426 (2006) 305–313
35. Hesam Ghourchibeigy, Mohammad Sadegh Haghighat Nia , Ali Shokuhfar , Fatemeh Arabi, Mehrdad Arjmand, “Modifying Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) for Cu-Al-Ni Shape Memory”, 2010 International Conference on Nanotechnology and Biosensors IPCBEE vol.2 (2011) © (2011) IACSIT Press, Singapore
36. Hyoung Seop Kim, Pham Quang, Min Hong Seo, Sun Ig Hong,Kyeong Ho Baik, Hong Rho Lee and Do Minh Nghiep, “Process Modelling of Equal Channel Angular Pressing for Ultrafine Grained Materials”, Materials Transactions, Vol. 45, No. 7 (2004) pp. 2172 to 2176.
37. Chegini, A. Fallahi, M.H. Shaeri, “Effect of Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) on Wear Behavior of Al-7075 Alloy”, 5th International Biennial Conference on Ultrafine Grained and Nanostructured Materials, UFGNSM15, Procedia Materials Science 11 ( 2015 ) 95 – 100
38. Woo Jin Kim, Hyo Tae Jeong, “Grain-Size Strengthening in Equal-Channel-Angular-Pressing Processed AZ31 Mg Alloys with a Constant Texture”, Materials Transactions, Vol. 46, No. 2 (2005) pp. 251 to 258
39. Mitsak, B. Aour, F. Khelil, “Numerical Investigation of Plastic Deformation in Two-turn Equal Channel Angular Extrusion”, Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research Vol. 4, No. 6, 2014, 728-733.
40. Si-Young Chang, Ki-Seung Lee, Seung Kyun Ryu, Kyung-Tae Park and Dong Hyuk Shin , “Effect of Equal Channel Angular Pressing on the Distribution of Reinforcements in the Discontinuous Metal Matrix Composites”, Materials Transactions, Vol. 43, No. 4 (2002) pp. 757 to 761.
41. Ondrej skleni, sediv ckayb, viktor bene s, petrpon zil, petrkr al, aclav “Quantitative characterization of microstructure of pure copper processed by ecap", image anal stereol 2013;32:65-75.
42. P. Minneci, E.A. Lass, J.R. Bunn, H. Choo, C.J. Rawn, Copper-based alloys for structural high-heat-flux applications: a review of development, properties, and performance of Cu-rich Cu–Cr–Nb alloys. Int. Mater. Rev. 66, 394–425 (2021).
43. Yang, L. Wang, L. Snead, S.J. Zinkle, Development of novel Cu–Cr–Nb–Zr alloys with the aid of computational thermodynamics. Mater. Des. 156, 370–380 (2018).
44. R. Anderson, J.R. Groza, Microstructural size effects in high-strength high-conductivity Cu–Cr–Nb alloys. Metall Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 32, 1211–1223 (2001).
45. R. Anderson, J.R. Groza, R.L. Dreshfield, D. Ellis, High-performance dispersion-strengthened Cu-8 Cr-4 Nb alloy. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 26, 2197–2206 (1995).
46. Guo, Z. Xiao, W. Qiu, Z. Li, Z. Zhao, X. Wang, Y. Jiang, Microstructure and properties of Cu–Cr–Nb alloy with high strength, high electrical conductivity and good softening resistance performance at elevated temperature. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 749, 281–290 (2019).
47. Laporte, A. Mortensen, Intermediate temperature embrittlement of copper alloys. Int. Mater. Rev. 54, 94–116 (2009).
48. Chenna Krishna, K.V. Radhika, K.T. Tharian, M. Swathi Kiranmayee, G. Sudarshan Rao, A.K. Jha, B. Pant, Dynamic Embrittlement in Cu–Cr–Zr–Ti alloy: evidence of intergranular segregation of sulphur. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 22, 2331–2336 (2013).
49. Li, B.G. Thomas, J.F. Stubbins, Modeling creep and fatigue of copper alloys. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 31, 2491–2502 (2000).
50. Li, S.J. Zinkle, 4.20—physical and mechanical properties of copper and copper alloys. Compr. Nucl. Mater. 1–5, 667–690 (2012).
51. C. Groh, D.L. Ellis, W.S. Loewenthal, Comparison of GRCop-84 to other Cu alloys with high thermal conductivities. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 17, 594–606 (2007).
52. Zhong, S. Yang, P. Zhao, G. Xie, A. Wang, J. Li, W. Liu, Solidification characteristics and precipitation behavior of the Cu–Cr–Nb alloys. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 23, 882–893 (2023).
53. Zhou, Y. Yang, Q. Lei, R. Chen, S. Gong, Effect of fabrication methods on the microstructure and properties of a Cu–Cr–Nb alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 858, 144159 (2022)
54. Yang, Q. Lei, H. Liu, J. Hong, Z. Han, Q. An, J. Shan, X. Chen, H. Xu, Z. Xiao, S. Gong, Cr-based second phases in a high conductivity Cu–Cr–Nb alloy with high high-temperature strength. Mater. Des. 219, 110784 (2022).
55. C. Krishna, P. Muneshwar, B. Pant, R. Korla, Hot deformation behavior and processing map of Cu–Cr–Nb–Zr alloy. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 31, 1325–1337 (2021).
56. C. Krishna, P. Yasam, S. Dudala, S. Kotla, P. Muneshwar, B. Pant, R. Korla, Recrystallization behavior of cold-rolled Cu– Cr–Nb–Zr alloy investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 33, 136–143 (2023).
57. Huang, R.E. Logé, A review of dynamic recrystallization phenomena in metallic materials. Mater. Des. 111, 548–574 (2016).
58. I. Poliak, J.J. Jonas, A one-parameter approach to determining the critical conditions for the initiation of dynamic recrystallization. Acta Mater. 44, 127–136 (1996)
59. D. Ryan, H.J. McQueen, Dynamic softening mechanisms in 304 austenitic stainless steel. Can. Metall. Q. 29, 147–162 (1990).
60. I. Poliak, J.J. Jonas, Initiation of dynamic recrystallization in constant strain rate hot deformation. ISIJ Int. 43, 684–691 (2003).
61. Najafizadeh, J.J. Jonas, Predicting the critical stress for initiation of DRX—Najafizadfeh, Jonas. ISIJ Int. 46, 1679–1684 (2006).
62. Mirzadeh, A. Najafizadeh, Prediction of the critical conditions for initiation of dynamic recrystallization. Mater. Des. 31, 1174–1179 (2010).
63. M. Sellars, W.J. McTegart, On the mechanism of hot deformation. Acta Metall. 14, 1136–1138 (1966)
64. Zhang, H. Sun, A.A. Volinsky, B. Tian, K. Song, Z. Chai, P. Liu, Y. Liu, Dynamic recrystallization behavior and processing map of the Cu–Cr–Zr–Nd alloy. Springerplus. (2016).
65. Manonukul, F.P.E. Dunne, Initiation of dynamic recrystallization under inhomogeneous stress states in pure copper. Acta. Mater. 47, 4339–4354 (1999).
66. Y. Yang, W.J. Kim, The effect of addition of Sn to copper on hot compressive deformation mechanisms, microstructural evolution and processing maps. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 9, 749–761 (2020).
67. Gupta, S.H. Choi, Self-annealing phenomena in the cold-rolled and cryo-rolled copper alloys: a review. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2635, 012015 (2023).
68. Kaibyshev, T. Sakai, H. Miura, J.J. Jonas, A. Belyakov, Dynamic and post-dynamic recrystallization under hot, cold and severe plastic deformation conditions. Prog. Mater. Sci. 60, 130–207 (2013).
69. Dehghan-Manshadi, M.R. Barnett, P.D. Hodgson, Hot deformation and recrystallization of austenitic stainless steel: Part I. dynamic recrystallization, Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 39A, 1359–1370 (2008).