The Egyptian pyramids, notably those at Giza, are iconic icons of ancient civilisation and architecture. The Egyptian pyramids’ construction, religious purpose, and legacy are examined in this article via historical, cultural, and technological lenses. It traces the development of pyramid architecture from stepped to smooth-sided marvels in the Old Kingdom, particularly under the Fourth Dynasty. Archaeological and scholarly perspectives examine the pyramids’ royal tomb role, alignment with celestial bodies, and labor arrangements. How the Great Pyramids of Giza were built has remained an enduring mystery. In the mid-1980s, Davidovits proposed that the pyramids were cast in situ using granular limestone aggregate and an alkali alumino-silicate-based binder. Hard evidence for this idea, however, remained elusive. Using primarily scanning and transmission electron microscopy, we compared several pyramid limestone samples with six different limestone samples from their vicinity. The pyramid samples contained microconstituents (μc’s) with appreciable amounts of Si in combination with elements, such as Ca and Mg in ratios, that do not exist in any of the potential limestone sources. The intimate proximity of the μc’s suggests that at some time these elements had been together in a solution.The article also examines modern engineering and symbolic theories and controversies to explain why these structures remain popular. The pyramids’ historical background and ongoing impact are examined in the article to fully grasp one of humanity’s greatest architectural achievements.

Keywords: Ancient Egypt, Pyramids, Giza Plateau, Pharaohs, Archaeology.

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1. Magli G. Astronomical orientation of IV dynasty Egyptian pyramids and second Giza pyramid date [Online]. 2003. Available from: https://arxiv.org/vc/physics/papers.
2. Magli G. Archaeo-astronomical evidence suggests Akhet Khufu and the two great pyramids of Giza shared a project. In: Williams K, editor. Archaeo-astronomical hints of a common project of the two main pyramids of Giza, Egypt: Akhet Khufu. Nexus Netw J. 2009;11(1). Basel: Birkhäuser; 2007. 67–75p.
3. Chaabane L, Soualhi H, Matari N, Benmokhtar N, Bouayed NS, Bendisari T. (2022). Study and comparison of ancient and modern Egyptian item [Online]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
4. Morishima K, Kuno M, Nishio A, Kitagawa N, Manabe Y, Moto M, et al. Cosmic-ray muons show a big void in Khufu’s pyramid. Nature. 2017;552(7685):386–390.
5. Okon E. Archaeological reflections on Egyptian religion and society [Online]. 2016. Available from: https://doi.org/10.19044/ESJ.2012.V8N26P%P.
6. Coetzee D. Effects of Ankh, sun-disk, and Wadjet eye symbols on modern (“western”) society. 2017.
7. Zalewski F. Triangles on Giza’s Great Pyramid walls. Geo Geophys Environ. 2016;42(1):141.
8. Abdall R. Egyptian environmental policy’s views on sustainable community development. Dev Ctry Stud. 2017;7(11):1–10.
9. Ivashov S, Bugaev A, Razevig V. Discussion of the Non-Destructive Testing Possibilities for the Study of the Great Pyramid of Giza. Heritage. 2023 Aug 14;6(8):5867-82.
10. Sparavigna AC. Pyramids, Meteorites and Circumpolar Stars, that is to say, the Meteoric Iron in Ancient Egyptian and Chinese Cultures. Available at SSRN 4113311. 2025.
11. Tasellari A, Kaiku L. How the Great Pyramid of Giza was built: an engineering view. In: International Students’ Conference of Civil Engineering (ISCCE 2012); 2012 May 10–11. Tirana, Albania: Epoka University; 2013.

The Egyptian pyramids, notably those at Giza, are iconic icons of ancient civilisation and architecture. The Egyptian pyramids’ construction, religious purpose, and legacy are examined in this article via historical, cultural, and technological lenses. It traces the development of pyramid architecture from stepped to smooth-sided marvels in the Old Kingdom, particularly under the Fourth Dynasty. Archaeological and scholarly perspectives examine the pyramids’ royal tomb role, alignment with celestial bodies, and labor arrangements. How the Great Pyramids of Giza were built has remained an enduring mystery. In the mid-1980s, Davidovits proposed that the pyramids were cast in situ using granular limestone aggregate and an alkali alumino-silicate-based binder. Hard evidence for this idea, however, remained elusive. Using primarily scanning and transmission electron microscopy, we compared several pyramid limestone samples with six different limestone samples from their vicinity. The pyramid samples contained microconstituents (μc’s) with appreciable amounts of Si in combination with elements, such as Ca and Mg in ratios, that do not exist in any of the potential limestone sources. The intimate proximity of the μc’s suggests that at some time these elements had been together in a solution.The article also examines modern engineering and symbolic theories and controversies to explain why these structures remain popular. The pyramids’ historical background and ongoing impact are examined in the article to fully grasp one of humanity’s greatest architectural achievements.

Keywords: Ancient Egypt, Pyramids, Giza Plateau, Pharaohs, Archaeology.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Magli G. Astronomical orientation of IV dynasty Egyptian pyramids and second Giza pyramid date [Online]. 2003. Available from: https://arxiv.org/vc/physics/papers.
2. Magli G. Archaeo-astronomical evidence suggests Akhet Khufu and the two great pyramids of Giza shared a project. In: Williams K, editor. Archaeo-astronomical hints of a common project of the two main pyramids of Giza, Egypt: Akhet Khufu. Nexus Netw J. 2009;11(1). Basel: Birkhäuser; 2007. 67–75p.
3. Chaabane L, Soualhi H, Matari N, Benmokhtar N, Bouayed NS, Bendisari T. (2022). Study and comparison of ancient and modern Egyptian item [Online]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
4. Morishima K, Kuno M, Nishio A, Kitagawa N, Manabe Y, Moto M, et al. Cosmic-ray muons show a big void in Khufu’s pyramid. Nature. 2017;552(7685):386–390.
5. Okon E. Archaeological reflections on Egyptian religion and society [Online]. 2016. Available from: https://doi.org/10.19044/ESJ.2012.V8N26P%P.
6. Coetzee D. Effects of Ankh, sun-disk, and Wadjet eye symbols on modern (“western”) society. 2017.
7. Zalewski F. Triangles on Giza’s Great Pyramid walls. Geo Geophys Environ. 2016;42(1):141.
8. Abdall R. Egyptian environmental policy’s views on sustainable community development. Dev Ctry Stud. 2017;7(11):1–10.
9. Ivashov S, Bugaev A, Razevig V. Discussion of the Non-Destructive Testing Possibilities for the Study of the Great Pyramid of Giza. Heritage. 2023 Aug 14;6(8):5867-82.
10. Sparavigna AC. Pyramids, Meteorites and Circumpolar Stars, that is to say, the Meteoric Iron in Ancient Egyptian and Chinese Cultures. Available at SSRN 4113311. 2025.
11. Tasellari A, Kaiku L. How the Great Pyramid of Giza was built: an engineering view. In: International Students’ Conference of Civil Engineering (ISCCE 2012); 2012 May 10–11. Tirana, Albania: Epoka University; 2013.