Journal Menu
By: D. M. C. T. Dissanayake, L. C. Menikarachchi, K. B. Wijayaratne, B. S. Nanayakkara, and L. K. Narangammana.
Research Assistant, Department of Physics, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Senior Lecturer, Department of Pharmacy, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Senior Lecturer, Department of Physics, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Senior Lecturer, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| *Author for CorrespondenceL. K. NarangammanaE-mail: [email protected] |
Low-cost fabrication methods are now essential for expanding access to microfluidic technologies in biological and laboratory applications. In this work, we present a fused deposition modeling (FDM) based approach for the rapid fabrication of monolithic microfluidic droplet generators incorporating several T-junction and specific flow-focusing geometries, including a novel vertical channel configuration. All devices were fabricated without post-processing or bonding, demonstrating a simple and cost-effective workflow using commercially available desktop 3D printers. The fabrication quality and dimensional fidelity of the printed devices were systematically evaluated by comparing channel orientation and printer resolution. Vertical channel architecture exhibited improved channel continuity and reduced blockage compared to conventional horizontal designs. Droplet generation experiments using water-in-oil emulsions revealed stable and reproducible droplet formation across a range of flow conditions. Flow-focusing devices with vertical channels produced smaller droplets with reduced size variability and shorter formation times relative to horizontal configurations. Higher printer resolution further enhanced droplet uniformity and controllability. Finally, the capability of the developed devices for biological applications was demonstrated through the encapsulation of bacterial cells within discrete droplets. The results highlight the potential of low-cost FDM-printed microfluidic devices as accessible platforms for droplet-based biological experiments, particularly in resource-limited research environments.
Citation:
Refrences:
1. Thorsen T, Roberts RW, Arnold FH, Quake SR. Dynamic pattern formation in a vesicle-generating microfluidic device. Phys Rev Lett. 2001 Apr 30;86(18):4163.
2. Song H, Tice JD, Ismagilov RF. A microfluidic system for controlling reaction networks in time. Angew Chem. 2003 Feb 17;115(7):792–6.
3. Xia Y, Rogers JA, Paul KE, Whitesides GM. Unconventional methods for fabricating and patterning nanostructures. Chem Rev. 1999 Jul 14;99(7):1823–48.
4. Qin D, Xia Y, Whitesides GM. Soft lithography for micro- and nanoscale patterning. Nat Protoc. 2010 Mar;5(3):491.
5. Kolesky DB, Truby RL, Gladman AS, Busbee TA, Homan KA, Lewis JA. 3D bioprinting of vascularized, heterogeneous cell-laden tissue constructs. Adv Mater. 2014 May;26(19):3124–30.
6. Tumbleston JR, Shirvanyants D, Ermoshkin N, Janusziewicz R, Johnson AR, Kelly D, et al. Continuous liquid interface production of 3D objects. Science. 2015 Mar 20;347(6228):1349–52.
7. Au AK, Huynh W, Horowitz LF, Folch A. 3D-printed microfluidics. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2016 Mar 14;55(12):3862–81.
8. Song K, Li G, Zu X, Du Z, Liu L, Hu Z. The fabrication and application mechanism of microfluidic systems for high throughput biomedical screening: A review. Micromachines. 2020 Mar 11;11(3):297.
9. Park Y, Franz CK, Ryu H, Luan H, Cotton KY, Kim JU, et al. Three-dimensional, multifunctional neural interfaces for cortical spheroids and engineered assembloids. Sci Adv. 2021 Mar 17;7(12):eabf9153.
10. Mi S, Du Z, Xu Y, Sun W. The crossing and integration between microfluidic technology and 3D printing for organ-on-chips. J Mater Chem B. 2018;6(39):6191–206.
11. Waldbaur A, Rapp H, Länge K, Rapp BE. Let there be chip—Towards rapid prototyping of microfluidic devices: One-step manufacturing processes. Anal Methods. 2011;3(12):2681–716.
12. Au AK, Lee W, Folch A. Mail-order microfluidics: Evaluation of stereolithography for the production of microfluidic devices. Lab Chip. 2014;14(7):1294–301.
13. Ko J, Lee J. Advanced microfluidic systems with temperature modulation for biological applications. Biomicrofluidics. 2025 May 1;19(3).
14. Cubaud T, Mason TG. Formation of miscible fluid microstructures by hydrodynamic focusing in plane geometries. Phys Rev E. 2008 Nov;78(5):056308.
15. Garstecki P, Fuerstman MJ, Stone HA, Whitesides GM. Formation of droplets and bubbles in a microfluidic T-junction—Scaling and mechanism of break-up. Lab Chip. 2006;6(3):437–46.
16. Anna SL, Mayer HC. Microscale tipstreaming in a microfluidic flow focusing device. Phys Fluids. 2006 Dec 1;18(12).
17. Zhu P, Wang L. Passive and active droplet generation with microfluidics: A review. Lab Chip. 2017;17(1):34–75.
18. Shah RK, Shum HC, Rowat AC, Lee D, Agresti JJ, Utada AS, et al. Designer emulsions using microfluidics. Mater Today. 2008 Apr 1;11(4):18–27.
19. Chan EM, Alivisatos AP, Mathies RA. High-temperature microfluidic synthesis of CdSe nanocrystals in nanoliter droplets. J Am Chem Soc. 2005 Oct 12;127(40):13854–61.
20. Glawdel T, Elbuken C, Ren CL. Droplet generation in microfluidics. In: Encyclopedia of Microfluidics and Nanofluidics. 2013. p. 1–2.
21. Rayner M, Trägårdh G, Trägårdh C. The impact of mass transfer and interfacial expansion rate on droplet size in membrane emulsification processes. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2005 Sep 15;266(1-3):1–7.
22. Link DR, Grasland-Mongrain E, Duri A, Sarrazin F, Cheng Z, Cristobal G, et al. Electric control of droplets in microfluidic devices. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2006 Apr 10;45(16):2556.
23. Shi Y, Tang GH, Xia HH. Lattice Boltzmann simulation of droplet formation in T-junction and flow focusing devices. Comput Fluids. 2014 Feb 10;90:155–63.
24. Huebner A, Sharma S, Srisa-Art M, Hollfelder F, Edel JB, Demello AJ. Microdroplets: A sea of applications? Lab Chip. 2008;8(8):1244–54.
25. Hanson Shepherd JN, Parker ST, Shepherd RF, Gillette MU, Lewis JA, Nuzzo RG. 3D microperiodic hydrogel scaffolds for robust neuronal cultures. Adv Funct Mater. 2011 Jan 7;21(1):47–54.
26. Therriault D, White SR, Lewis JA. Chaotic mixing in three-dimensional microvascular networks fabricated by direct-write assembly. Nat Mater. 2003 Apr 1;2(4):265–71.
27. Ahn BY, Duoss EB, Motala MJ, Guo X, Park SI, Xiong Y, et al. Omnidirectional printing of flexible, stretchable, and spanning silver microelectrodes. Science. 2009 Mar 20;323(5921):1590–3.
28. Symes MD, Kitson PJ, Yan J, Richmond CJ, Cooper GJ, Bowman RW, et al. Integrated 3D-printed reactionware for chemical synthesis and analysis. Nat Chem. 2012 May;4(5):349–54.
29. Mathieson JS, Rosnes MH, Sans V, Kitson PJ, Cronin L. Continuous parallel ESI-MS analysis of reactions carried out in a bespoke 3D printed device. Beilstein J Nanotechnol. 2013 Apr 29;4(1):285–91.
30. Wijnen B, Hunt EJ, Anzalone GC, Pearce JM. Open-source syringe pump library. PLoS One. 2014 Sep 17;9(9):e107216.
31. Tsuda S, Jaffery H, Doran D, Hezwani M, Robbins PJ, Yoshida M, et al. Customizable 3D printed ‘plug and play’ millifluidic devices for programmable fluidics. PLoS One. 2015 Nov 11;10(11):e0141640.
32. Britel A, Tomagra G, Aprà P, Varzi V, Sturari S, Amine NH, et al. 3D printing in microfluidics: Experimental optimization of droplet size and generation time through flow focusing, phase, and geometry variation. RSC Adv. 2024;14(11):7770–8.