ABSTRACT

Many factors are found to impact the behavior of retaining walls, RWs. These factors should be adopted in the design processes of these walls to satisfy the design requirements. They are linked to issues like structural behavior and yielding of the RWs. The major impacts of these factors are reviewed herein with some details. The reviewed factors exhibited that the yielding of RWs affects the design and modeling of RWs. The movement modes of these walls are related to their restraint condition under the different loading conditions. The shape of stress distribution due to lateral soil thrust behind RWs changes, according to the restraint degree, to produce a different resultant force with a centroid moved toward the middle of the wall. RWs prevented from movements need a higher safety factor against loading.  Although greater lateral stability (against certain dynamic loads) can be attained by using heavier RWs, a negative effect on stability can occur by increasing the inertial forces of the wall due to earthquake loading. Well—designed walls to sustain the static loading are proven to ensure good performance of such a wall under dynamic loading, with PGA limited to 0.4g, even when the seismic design is not considered. For RWs with an inclination toward backfill-side, some special considerations must be taken into account to avert the instability under earthquake shaking. For walls that derive their stability from the interaction between the soil and the mesh or strips included inside it, special measures related to the biological damages and environmental factors are necessary for structural stability.

Keywords:Interior stability, Non—Yielding, Equilibrium Mechanisms, Seismic Loading, Retaining Walls.

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Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Zhano, I.; Y. Shamot; and K. Tokimatsu. 1998. “Evaluation of Earth Pressure under any Lateral Deformation. Soils and Foundations, 38(1): 15 – 33.
2. Yadav, P.; A. Padade; P. Dahale; and V. Meshram; 2018. “Analytical and Experimental Analysis of Retaining Wall in Static and Seismic Conditions: A Review.” International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 9(2): 522–530.
3. Javadi, M.; R. Hassanli; and M. Rahman Karim. 2021. “Self-Centring Segmental Retaining Walls - A New Construction System For Retaining Walls.” Struct. Civ. Eng., 15: 980 - 1000.
4. Gao, H.; Y. Hu; Z. Wang; C. Wang; and G. Chen. 2017. “Shaking table Tests On the Seismic Performance of a Flexible Wall Retaining EPS Composite Soil. ” Bull Earthquake Eng, 15: 5481 – 5510.
5. Lim, A. 2018. “Lesson Learned from Retaining Wall Failures: A Geotechnical Disaster.” MATEC Web of Conferences, 229, 03014. ICDM 2018.
6. Hazirbaba, K.; O. Mughieda; G. Abu-Lebdeh. 2019. “A Critical Review on Seismic Design of Earth-Retaining Structures.” Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, 13(1).
7. Ahmed, M.D., & Al-Taie, A. 2024. A systematic review of factors controlling the acceptability of earth-retaining structures selection. AIP Conf. Proc. 2024
8. Arora, K. 2004. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. 6th edition, Standard Publishers Distributors, India.
9. Clayton, C.; R. Woods; A. Bond; and J. Milititsky. 2013. Earth Pressure and Earth Retaining Structures. Third Edition, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
10. Al-Taie, A.J, &. Ahmed, M.D. 2024. Reviewing critical factors controlling the modeling and design of earth retaining structures. in the 18th International Middle Eastern Simulation and Modelling Conference 2023, MESM 2023.
11. Das, B. and N. Sivakugan. 2019. Principles of Foundation Engineering. 9th edition, Cengage Learning, Inc. USA.
12. Ou, C., Yang, K., Teng, F., Chiou, J., Lu, C., Li, A., Ching, J., & Liao, J. 2024. Fundamentals of foundation engineering. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
13. Yun Que, Jisong Zhang, Chengcheng Long and Fuquan Chen 2024. Pseudo-static solution of active earth pressure against relief shelf retaining wall rotating around heel Geomechanics and Engineering. Volume 39, Number 1, October10 2024 , pages 087-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2024.39.1.087
14. Jumikis AR (1964) Mechanics of soils. D Van Nostrand Company Inc, Princeton, NJ.
15. Bell, F. G. 1987. Ground engineer’s reference book. Butterworths. London
16. Al-Taie, A.J, &. Ahmed, M.D. 2024b. A critical review of soil models and factors affecting earth retaining structures design. Jurnal Kejuruteraan (Journal of Engineering) 36(3): 909-923 .
17. Chauhan, V. 2021. Limit analysis of the retaining wall with relief shelves under static surcharge loading using FEM. Sādhanā 46:
18. Chauhan,V. and S. Dasaka. 2022. “Behavior of Rigid Retaining Walls with Relief Shelves: An Analytical Approach.” Geotech Geol Eng, 40: 663 - 675.
19. Elman, M. and C. Terry. 1987. “Retaining Walls With Sloped Base.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 113(9): 1048–1054. doi:10.1061/(asce)0733-9410(1987)113:9(1048)
20. Elman, M. and Terry. 1988. “Retaining walls with sloped heel.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 114(10): 194–1199. doi:10.1061/(asce)0733-9410(1988)114:10(1194)
21. Holtz, R.; W. Kovacs; and T. Sheahan. 2023. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, Inc, Hoboken.
22. Horvath, J. 1991. “Effect of footing Shape On Behavior Of Cantilever Retaining Wall.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 117(6): 973–978. doi:10.1061/(asce)0733-9410(1991)117:6(973)
23. Huang, Y. Chen, C.; Y. Huang; K. Kuo; Chen. 1998. Database For Retaining Wall Design. Advances in Engineering Software, 29(7-9): 619–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0965-9978(98)00027-1
24. Al-Taie, A.J. 2013. “Earth Pressure Acting on the Cantilever Embedded Retaining Wall in Multilayer Soil.” The 1st Basrah International Conference on Civil Engineering BICCE-01)-2013, Iraq.
25. Salgado, R. 2022. The Engineering of Foundations, Slopes and Retaining Structures. Second edition, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
26. Al-Taie, A.; and A. Mohammed. 2014. “A View Plan Sheet Pile: Design Chart for Cantilever Retaining Wall Construction for Active and Passive Earth Pressure in Baghdad Soil.” International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 3(2): 95 – 103.
27. Al-Taie, A.J. 2011. “Design of Sheet Pile in Al-Waziriya Soil.” The Iraqi Journal for Mechanical and Material Engineering. Special Issue for the Papers Presented in 3rd Annual Scientific Conference of the College of Engineering 23 - 24 March 2011.
28. Loukidis, D. and R. Salgado. 2012. “Active Pressure on Gravity Walls Supporting Purely Frictional Soils.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 49(1): 78 - 97.
29. Richards, R. and D. Elms. 1992. “Seismic Passive Resistance of Tied-Back Walls.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 118(7): 996 - 1011.
30. Yi, F. 2013. “Seismic Design of Restrained Rigid Walls.” Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013.
31. El-Emam, M. 2011. “Experimental and Numerical Study of At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure of Overconsolidated Sand.” Advances in Civil Engineering, 2011, (4).
32. Elms, D. and R. Richards. 1979. “Seismic Design of Gravity Retaining Walls. ” Bulletin of The New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering, 12(3): 114 - 121.
33. Wu, G. and W. Finn. 1999. “Seismic Lateral Pressures for Design of Rigid Walls.” Geotech. J., 36, 1999. PP.509-522.
34. Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC). 2009. NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings and other Structures. (FEMA P-750), 2009 edition. Washington, DC: BSSC.
35. Wagner, N. and N. Sitar. 2016. “On Seismic Response of Stiff and Flexible Retaining Structures. ” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 91: 284 - 293.
36. Fang, Y. and I. Ishibashi. 1986. “Static Earth Stresses on Walls Rotating About Top.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering ASCE, 112(3): 317 - 333.
37. Ishibashi, I. and Y. Fang. 1987. “Dynamic Earth Pressures With Different Wall Movement Modes.” Soils and Foundations, 27(4): 11 - 22.
38. Ambrose, J. 1991. Simplified Design of Masonry Structures. NewYork: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 70 - 75. ISBN 0471179884.
39. Crosbie, M.; and D. Watson. 2005. Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
40. Ching, F.; R. Faia; and P. Winkel. 2006. Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2006 International Building Code (2 ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
41. Turner, J. 2009. Excavation Systems Planning, Design, and Safety. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. United States of America.
42. Tomlinson, M.; and J. Woodward. 2015. Pile Design and Construction Practice. 6th edition, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.
43. Whitman, R. 1991. “Seismic Design of Earth Retaining Structures.” Proceedings, Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, St. Louis, MO, 1767-1778.
44. Wood, J. 1973. "Earthquake-Induced Soil Pressures on Structures." Report No. EERL 73-05, Earthquake Engineering. Research Lab., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.
45. Wu, G. 2010. “Seismic Soil Pressures on Rigid Walls with Sloped Backfills. ” Proceeding of 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics. San Diego, California, USA, 2010 -
46. O'Rourke, T. and C. Jones. 1990. “Overview of Earth Retaining Systems: 1970-1990. Design and Performance of Earth Retaining Structures,” Geotechnical Special Publication, 25: 22 - 51, P.C. Lambe and L.A. Hansen, eds., ASCE.
47. Codutu, D. 2001. Foundation Design: Principles and Practice. 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
48. Indiana Department of Transportation INDOT. 2012. Design Manual, Chapter 410, Earth-Retaining System.
49. Al-Taie, A.J., &. Ahmed, M.D. 2024c. Different design aspects of L-shaped earth retaining structures. BIO Web Conf. 97 (00101). https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/20249700101
50. Teng, W. 1962. Foundation Design. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
51. BS EN 1997-1. 2004. Eurocode 7—Geotechnical design—Part 1: General Rules. British Standards Institution, London
52. Kaniraj, S. 1998. Design Aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
53. Kimmerling, R. 2002. "Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 6-Shallow Foundations." Technical Report, FHWA-SA-02-054.
54. Anderson, D. 2008. "Seismic Analysis and Design of Retaining Walls, Buried Structures, Slopes, and Embankments." 611. Washington, DC: National Cooperative Highway Research Program.
55. Seed, H. and R. Whitman. 1970. “Design of Earth Retaining Structures for Dynamic Loads.” ASCE Specialty Conference, Lateral Stresses in the Ground and Design of Earth Retaining Structures, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, New York, 103 - 147.
56. Clough, G. and R. Fragaszy. 1977. “A Study of Earth Loadings On Floodway Retaining Structures in the 1971 San Fernando Valley earthquake. ” Proceedings of the Sixth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 3: 1977.
57. Al-Atik, L. and N. Sitar. 2010. “Seismic Earth Pressures on Cantilever Retaining Structures. ” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(10): 1324 - 1333.
58. Al-Taie, A.J, &. Ahmed, M.D. 2025. Selection Considerations and Classification Bases of Earth Retaining Systems. Jurnal Kejuruteraan (Journal of Engineering) 37 (2): 679-694. 10.17576/jkukm-2025-37(2)-11.
59. Tatsuoka, F.; J. Koseki; M. Tateyama; Y. Munuf; and K. Horii. 1998. “Seismic Stability Against High Seismic Loads of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil Retaining Structures. ” In: of 6th International conference on geosynthetics, Atlanta, 1: 103 - 142.
60. Nakajima, S.; A. Kudo; H. Narita; and K. Watanabe. 2019. “Experimental Study on Effect and Design of Aseismic Reinforcement for Existing Leaning Type Retaining Wall.” Japan Soc. Civil Eng., Part 3 (Geosphere Eng.) 75(3): 316–335.
61. Nakajima, S.; T. Sanagawa; T. Matsumaru; and M. Koda. 2022. “Recent Research Development and their Applications on Aseismic Reinforcement of Existing Railway Earth Structures.” Soils and Foundations, 62(1): 101104.
62. Al-Taie AJ, Al-Shakarchi, Y (2016) Dune soils of Mesopotamian Plain as geotechnical construction material. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
63. Al-Taie 2002. Properties and behavior of dune sand as a construction material. Master’s Thesis, Civil Engineering Dept., University of Baghdad, Iraq.
64. Chonkar, R. 2001. “Review of design of reinforced earth retaining walls for flyovers.” The Indian Concrete Journal, 782-786.
65. Watanbe, K.; Y. Munaf; J. Koseki; M. Tateyama; and K. Kojima. 2003. “Behaviors of Several Types of Model Retaining Walls Subjected to Irregular Excitation. ” Soils and Foundations, 43(5): 13 – 27.
66. Ghanbari, A. and M. Ahmadabadi. 2010. “Active Earth Pressure On Inclined Retaining Walls in Static and Pseudo-Static Conditions. ” International Journal of Civil Engineering, 8(2).

ABSTRACT

Many factors are found to impact the behavior of retaining walls, RWs. These factors should be adopted in the design processes of these walls to satisfy the design requirements. They are linked to issues like structural behavior and yielding of the RWs. The major impacts of these factors are reviewed herein with some details. The reviewed factors exhibited that the yielding of RWs affects the design and modeling of RWs. The movement modes of these walls are related to their restraint condition under the different loading conditions. The shape of stress distribution due to lateral soil thrust behind RWs changes, according to the restraint degree, to produce a different resultant force with a centroid moved toward the middle of the wall. RWs prevented from movements need a higher safety factor against loading.  Although greater lateral stability (against certain dynamic loads) can be attained by using heavier RWs, a negative effect on stability can occur by increasing the inertial forces of the wall due to earthquake loading. Well—designed walls to sustain the static loading are proven to ensure good performance of such a wall under dynamic loading, with PGA limited to 0.4g, even when the seismic design is not considered. For RWs with an inclination toward backfill-side, some special considerations must be taken into account to avert the instability under earthquake shaking. For walls that derive their stability from the interaction between the soil and the mesh or strips included inside it, special measures related to the biological damages and environmental factors are necessary for structural stability.

Keywords:Interior stability, Non—Yielding, Equilibrium Mechanisms, Seismic Loading, Retaining Walls.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Zhano, I.; Y. Shamot; and K. Tokimatsu. 1998. “Evaluation of Earth Pressure under any Lateral Deformation. Soils and Foundations, 38(1): 15 – 33.
2. Yadav, P.; A. Padade; P. Dahale; and V. Meshram; 2018. “Analytical and Experimental Analysis of Retaining Wall in Static and Seismic Conditions: A Review.” International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 9(2): 522–530.
3. Javadi, M.; R. Hassanli; and M. Rahman Karim. 2021. “Self-Centring Segmental Retaining Walls - A New Construction System For Retaining Walls.” Struct. Civ. Eng., 15: 980 - 1000.
4. Gao, H.; Y. Hu; Z. Wang; C. Wang; and G. Chen. 2017. “Shaking table Tests On the Seismic Performance of a Flexible Wall Retaining EPS Composite Soil. ” Bull Earthquake Eng, 15: 5481 – 5510.
5. Lim, A. 2018. “Lesson Learned from Retaining Wall Failures: A Geotechnical Disaster.” MATEC Web of Conferences, 229, 03014. ICDM 2018.
6. Hazirbaba, K.; O. Mughieda; G. Abu-Lebdeh. 2019. “A Critical Review on Seismic Design of Earth-Retaining Structures.” Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, 13(1).
7. Ahmed, M.D., & Al-Taie, A. 2024. A systematic review of factors controlling the acceptability of earth-retaining structures selection. AIP Conf. Proc. 2024
8. Arora, K. 2004. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. 6th edition, Standard Publishers Distributors, India.
9. Clayton, C.; R. Woods; A. Bond; and J. Milititsky. 2013. Earth Pressure and Earth Retaining Structures. Third Edition, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
10. Al-Taie, A.J, &. Ahmed, M.D. 2024. Reviewing critical factors controlling the modeling and design of earth retaining structures. in the 18th International Middle Eastern Simulation and Modelling Conference 2023, MESM 2023.
11. Das, B. and N. Sivakugan. 2019. Principles of Foundation Engineering. 9th edition, Cengage Learning, Inc. USA.
12. Ou, C., Yang, K., Teng, F., Chiou, J., Lu, C., Li, A., Ching, J., & Liao, J. 2024. Fundamentals of foundation engineering. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
13. Yun Que, Jisong Zhang, Chengcheng Long and Fuquan Chen 2024. Pseudo-static solution of active earth pressure against relief shelf retaining wall rotating around heel Geomechanics and Engineering. Volume 39, Number 1, October10 2024 , pages 087-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2024.39.1.087
14. Jumikis AR (1964) Mechanics of soils. D Van Nostrand Company Inc, Princeton, NJ.
15. Bell, F. G. 1987. Ground engineer’s reference book. Butterworths. London
16. Al-Taie, A.J, &. Ahmed, M.D. 2024b. A critical review of soil models and factors affecting earth retaining structures design. Jurnal Kejuruteraan (Journal of Engineering) 36(3): 909-923 .
17. Chauhan, V. 2021. Limit analysis of the retaining wall with relief shelves under static surcharge loading using FEM. Sādhanā 46:
18. Chauhan,V. and S. Dasaka. 2022. “Behavior of Rigid Retaining Walls with Relief Shelves: An Analytical Approach.” Geotech Geol Eng, 40: 663 - 675.
19. Elman, M. and C. Terry. 1987. “Retaining Walls With Sloped Base.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 113(9): 1048–1054. doi:10.1061/(asce)0733-9410(1987)113:9(1048)
20. Elman, M. and Terry. 1988. “Retaining walls with sloped heel.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 114(10): 194–1199. doi:10.1061/(asce)0733-9410(1988)114:10(1194)
21. Holtz, R.; W. Kovacs; and T. Sheahan. 2023. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, Inc, Hoboken.
22. Horvath, J. 1991. “Effect of footing Shape On Behavior Of Cantilever Retaining Wall.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 117(6): 973–978. doi:10.1061/(asce)0733-9410(1991)117:6(973)
23. Huang, Y. Chen, C.; Y. Huang; K. Kuo; Chen. 1998. Database For Retaining Wall Design. Advances in Engineering Software, 29(7-9): 619–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0965-9978(98)00027-1
24. Al-Taie, A.J. 2013. “Earth Pressure Acting on the Cantilever Embedded Retaining Wall in Multilayer Soil.” The 1st Basrah International Conference on Civil Engineering BICCE-01)-2013, Iraq.
25. Salgado, R. 2022. The Engineering of Foundations, Slopes and Retaining Structures. Second edition, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
26. Al-Taie, A.; and A. Mohammed. 2014. “A View Plan Sheet Pile: Design Chart for Cantilever Retaining Wall Construction for Active and Passive Earth Pressure in Baghdad Soil.” International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 3(2): 95 – 103.
27. Al-Taie, A.J. 2011. “Design of Sheet Pile in Al-Waziriya Soil.” The Iraqi Journal for Mechanical and Material Engineering. Special Issue for the Papers Presented in 3rd Annual Scientific Conference of the College of Engineering 23 - 24 March 2011.
28. Loukidis, D. and R. Salgado. 2012. “Active Pressure on Gravity Walls Supporting Purely Frictional Soils.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 49(1): 78 - 97.
29. Richards, R. and D. Elms. 1992. “Seismic Passive Resistance of Tied-Back Walls.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 118(7): 996 - 1011.
30. Yi, F. 2013. “Seismic Design of Restrained Rigid Walls.” Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013.
31. El-Emam, M. 2011. “Experimental and Numerical Study of At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure of Overconsolidated Sand.” Advances in Civil Engineering, 2011, (4).
32. Elms, D. and R. Richards. 1979. “Seismic Design of Gravity Retaining Walls. ” Bulletin of The New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering, 12(3): 114 - 121.
33. Wu, G. and W. Finn. 1999. “Seismic Lateral Pressures for Design of Rigid Walls.” Geotech. J., 36, 1999. PP.509-522.
34. Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC). 2009. NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings and other Structures. (FEMA P-750), 2009 edition. Washington, DC: BSSC.
35. Wagner, N. and N. Sitar. 2016. “On Seismic Response of Stiff and Flexible Retaining Structures. ” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 91: 284 - 293.
36. Fang, Y. and I. Ishibashi. 1986. “Static Earth Stresses on Walls Rotating About Top.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering ASCE, 112(3): 317 - 333.
37. Ishibashi, I. and Y. Fang. 1987. “Dynamic Earth Pressures With Different Wall Movement Modes.” Soils and Foundations, 27(4): 11 - 22.
38. Ambrose, J. 1991. Simplified Design of Masonry Structures. NewYork: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 70 - 75. ISBN 0471179884.
39. Crosbie, M.; and D. Watson. 2005. Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
40. Ching, F.; R. Faia; and P. Winkel. 2006. Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2006 International Building Code (2 ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
41. Turner, J. 2009. Excavation Systems Planning, Design, and Safety. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. United States of America.
42. Tomlinson, M.; and J. Woodward. 2015. Pile Design and Construction Practice. 6th edition, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.
43. Whitman, R. 1991. “Seismic Design of Earth Retaining Structures.” Proceedings, Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, St. Louis, MO, 1767-1778.
44. Wood, J. 1973. "Earthquake-Induced Soil Pressures on Structures." Report No. EERL 73-05, Earthquake Engineering. Research Lab., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.
45. Wu, G. 2010. “Seismic Soil Pressures on Rigid Walls with Sloped Backfills. ” Proceeding of 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics. San Diego, California, USA, 2010 -
46. O'Rourke, T. and C. Jones. 1990. “Overview of Earth Retaining Systems: 1970-1990. Design and Performance of Earth Retaining Structures,” Geotechnical Special Publication, 25: 22 - 51, P.C. Lambe and L.A. Hansen, eds., ASCE.
47. Codutu, D. 2001. Foundation Design: Principles and Practice. 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
48. Indiana Department of Transportation INDOT. 2012. Design Manual, Chapter 410, Earth-Retaining System.
49. Al-Taie, A.J., &. Ahmed, M.D. 2024c. Different design aspects of L-shaped earth retaining structures. BIO Web Conf. 97 (00101). https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/20249700101
50. Teng, W. 1962. Foundation Design. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
51. BS EN 1997-1. 2004. Eurocode 7—Geotechnical design—Part 1: General Rules. British Standards Institution, London
52. Kaniraj, S. 1998. Design Aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
53. Kimmerling, R. 2002. "Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 6-Shallow Foundations." Technical Report, FHWA-SA-02-054.
54. Anderson, D. 2008. "Seismic Analysis and Design of Retaining Walls, Buried Structures, Slopes, and Embankments." 611. Washington, DC: National Cooperative Highway Research Program.
55. Seed, H. and R. Whitman. 1970. “Design of Earth Retaining Structures for Dynamic Loads.” ASCE Specialty Conference, Lateral Stresses in the Ground and Design of Earth Retaining Structures, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, New York, 103 - 147.
56. Clough, G. and R. Fragaszy. 1977. “A Study of Earth Loadings On Floodway Retaining Structures in the 1971 San Fernando Valley earthquake. ” Proceedings of the Sixth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 3: 1977.
57. Al-Atik, L. and N. Sitar. 2010. “Seismic Earth Pressures on Cantilever Retaining Structures. ” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(10): 1324 - 1333.
58. Al-Taie, A.J, &. Ahmed, M.D. 2025. Selection Considerations and Classification Bases of Earth Retaining Systems. Jurnal Kejuruteraan (Journal of Engineering) 37 (2): 679-694. 10.17576/jkukm-2025-37(2)-11.
59. Tatsuoka, F.; J. Koseki; M. Tateyama; Y. Munuf; and K. Horii. 1998. “Seismic Stability Against High Seismic Loads of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil Retaining Structures. ” In: of 6th International conference on geosynthetics, Atlanta, 1: 103 - 142.
60. Nakajima, S.; A. Kudo; H. Narita; and K. Watanabe. 2019. “Experimental Study on Effect and Design of Aseismic Reinforcement for Existing Leaning Type Retaining Wall.” Japan Soc. Civil Eng., Part 3 (Geosphere Eng.) 75(3): 316–335.
61. Nakajima, S.; T. Sanagawa; T. Matsumaru; and M. Koda. 2022. “Recent Research Development and their Applications on Aseismic Reinforcement of Existing Railway Earth Structures.” Soils and Foundations, 62(1): 101104.
62. Al-Taie AJ, Al-Shakarchi, Y (2016) Dune soils of Mesopotamian Plain as geotechnical construction material. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
63. Al-Taie 2002. Properties and behavior of dune sand as a construction material. Master’s Thesis, Civil Engineering Dept., University of Baghdad, Iraq.
64. Chonkar, R. 2001. “Review of design of reinforced earth retaining walls for flyovers.” The Indian Concrete Journal, 782-786.
65. Watanbe, K.; Y. Munaf; J. Koseki; M. Tateyama; and K. Kojima. 2003. “Behaviors of Several Types of Model Retaining Walls Subjected to Irregular Excitation. ” Soils and Foundations, 43(5): 13 – 27.
66. Ghanbari, A. and M. Ahmadabadi. 2010. “Active Earth Pressure On Inclined Retaining Walls in Static and Pseudo-Static Conditions. ” International Journal of Civil Engineering, 8(2).