Chitosan is the second most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose that can be extracted from marine sources, as well as from agricultural waste products such as mushrooms or other fungal sources following chitin deacetylation. The consistent production of these glycans by fungi is unaffected by seasonal changes, allowing for precise process control. This results in a more consistent quality of the final product. Currently, crustacean shells and other marine species are the most important sources of chitin/chitosan production globally. However, extraction from marine sources involves a number of problems, including an unreliable raw material supply chain. Large-scale chitosan extraction from crustaceans degrades the environment by requiring severe processing procedures such as alkali deproteinization. Many researches have recently been conducted to investigate alternate sources or environmentally friendly techniques for producing chitosan. Fungal biomass can be good alternate as well as environmentally friendly source for the extraction fungal chitosan. Due to its steady property and low molecular weight fungal chitosan is more suitable in application like pharma and biomedical. Chitosan can be used for an extensive range of applications due to its macromolecular structure and distinct physiological and biological features, such as biodegradability, solubility, biocompatibility, solubility, and reactivity. Chitosan can be used for a different range of applications that include in agricultural, biomedical, pharmaceutical, nutraceuticals, cosmetics and cosmeceuticals, and wastewater treatment. This review highlights the diverse applications of commercial chitosan products across various fields, alongside its primary focus on fungal chitosan extraction. It underscores the broad utility of chitosan beyond its extraction from fungi.

Keywords:Biopolymer, Fungal Chitosan, Chitosan, Chitin, Application, Production

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1. Philibert T, Lee BH, Fabien N. Current status and new perspectives on chitin and chitosan as functional biopolymers. Applied biochemistry and biotechnology. 2017 Apr; 181:1314-37.
2. Rahman RU, Mathur G. Effect of Different Media on Growth Kinetics Parameters of Aspergillus ochraceus: an Approach Towards Production of Fungal Biomass. Current Trends in Biotechnology and Pharmacy. 2021; 15(6):1-3.
3. Aranaz I, Mengíbar M, Acosta N, Heras A. Chitosan: a natural polymer with potential industrial applications. Science Vision. 2015;21(1-2):41-50.
4. Huq T, Khan A, Brown D, Dhayagude N, He Z, Ni Y. Sources, production and commercial applications of fungal chitosan: A review. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts. 2022 May 1;7(2):85-98.
5. Kaur S, Dhillon GS. The versatile biopolymer chitosan: potential sources, evaluation of extraction methods and applications. Critical reviews in microbiology. 2014 May 1;40(2):155 75.
6. Mourya VK, Inamdar NN, Choudhari YM. Chitooligosaccharides: Synthesis, characterization and applications. Polymer Science Series A. 2011 Jul;53(7):583-612.
7. Suryawanshi N, Eswari JS. Shrimp shell waste as a potential raw material for biorefinery—a revisit. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2022 May;12(5):1977-84.
8. Dai L, Wang Y, Li Z, Wang X, Duan C, Zhao W, Xiong C, Nie S, Xu Y, Ni Y. A Multifunctional self-crosslinked chitosan/cationic guar gum composite hydrogel and its versatile uses in phosphate-containing water treatment and energy storage. Carbohydrate polymers. 2020 Sep 15; 244:116472.
9. Dai L, Wang Y, Li Z, Wang X, Duan C, Zhao W, Xiong C, Nie S, Xu Y, Ni Y. A Multifunctional self-crosslinked chitosan/cationic guar gum composite hydrogel and its versatile uses in phosphate-containing water treatment and energy storage. Carbohydrate polymers .2020 Sep 15;244:116472.
10. Ghormade V, Pathan EK, Deshpande MV. Can fungi compete with marine sources for chitosan production? International journal of biological macromolecules. 2017 Nov 1; 104:1415- 21.
11. Wang W, Du Y, Qiu Y, Wang X, Hu Y, Yang J, Cai J, Kennedy JF. A new green technology for direct production of low molecular weight chitosan. Carbohydrate polymers. 2008 Oct 1;74(1):127-32.
12. Rane KD, Hoover DG. An evaluation of alkali and acid treatments for chitosan extraction from fungi. Process Biochemistry. 1993 Jan 1;28(2):115-8.
13. Hu KJ, Hu JL, Ho KP, Yeung KW. Screening of fungi for chitosan producers, and Copper adsorption capacity of fungal chitosan and chitosanaceous materials. Carbohydrate polymers. 2004 Oct 1;58(1):45-52.
14. Ghormade V, Pathan EK, Deshpande MV. Can fungi compete with marine sources for chitosan production? International journal of biological macromolecules. 2017 Nov 1; 104:1415 21.
15. Rinaudo M. Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications. Progress in polymer science. 2006 Jul 1;31(7):603-32.
16. Philibert T, Lee BH, Fabien N. Current status and new perspectives on chitin and chitosan as functional biopolymers. Applied biochemistry and biotechnology. 2017 Apr; 181:1314-37.
17. Suryawanshi N, Eswari JS. Shrimp shell waste as a potential raw material for biorefinery—a revisit. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2022 May;12(5):1977-84.
18. Abo Elsoud MM, El Kady EM. Current trends in fungal biosynthesis of chitin and chitosan. Bulletin of the National Research Centre. 2019 Dec;43(1):1-2.
19. Shibuya N, Minami E. Oligosaccharide signalling for defence responses in plant. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology. 2001 Nov 1;59(5):223-33.
20. Riseh RS, Vatankhah M, Hassanisaadi M, Varma RS. A review of chitosan nanoparticles: Nature's gift for transforming agriculture through smart and effective delivery mechanisms.  International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024 Jan 19:129522.
21. Ben-Shalom N, Ardi R, Pinto R, Aki C, Fallik E. Controlling gray mould caused by Botrytis cinerea in cucumber plants by means of chitosan. Crop Protection. 2003 Mar 1;22(2):285-90.
22. Batista AC, Souza Neto FE, Paiva WD. Review of fungal chitosan: past, present and perspectives in Brazil. Polímeros. 2018 Jun 28; 28:275-83.
23. Islam S, Bhuiyan MR, Islam MN. Chitin and chitosan: structure, properties, and applications in biomedical engineering. Journal of Polymers and the Environment. 2017 Sep; 25:854-66.
24. Thorlton J, Park C, Hughes T. Diet pills, powders, and liquids: predictors of use by healthy weight females. The Journal of School Nursing. 2014 Apr;30(2):129-35.
25. Azuma K, Ifuku S, Osaki T, Okamoto Y, Minami S. Preparation and biomedical applications of chitin and chitosan nanofibers. Journal of biomedical nanotechnology. 2014 Oct 1;10(10):2891-920.
26. Silva ÁF, de Souza AF, Pinheiro IO, de Campos-Takaki GM. Green synthesis of chitosan by Cunninghamella elegans UCP 1306 using sustainable substrates mediated morphological changes. Research, Society and Development. 2022 May 28;11(7): e38211729387.
27. Akbari-Alavijeh S, Shaddel R, Jafari SM. Encapsulation of food bioactives and nutraceuticals by various chitosan-based nanocarriers. Food hydrocolloids. 2020 Aug 1; 105:105774.
28. Patti AM, Katsiki N, Nikolic D, Al-Rasadi K, Rizzo M. Nutraceuticals in lipid-lowering treatment: a narrative review on the role of chitosan. Angiology. 2015 May;66(5):416-21.
29. Brigham CJ. Chitin and chitosan: sustainable, medically relevant biomaterials. Int. J. Wellness Ind. 2017 Aug 29;6(2):41-7.
30. Aranaz I, Acosta N, Civera C, Elorza B, Mingo J, Castro C, Gandía MD, Heras Caballero Cosmetics and cosmeceutical applications of chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives. Polymers. 2018 Feb 22;10 (2):213.
31. Guzmán E, Ortega F, Rubio RG. Chitosan: a promising multifunctional cosmetic ingredient or skin and hair care. Cosmetics. 2022 Sep 27;9(5):99.
32. Surgutskaia NS, Di Martino A, Zednik J, Ozaltin K, Lovecka L, Bergerova ED, Kimmer D, Svoboda J, Sedlarik V. Efficient Cu2+, Pb2+ and Ni2+ ion removal from wastewater using electrospun DTPA-modified chitosan/polyethylene oxide nanofibers. Separation and Purification Technology. 2020 Sep 15; 247:116914.
33. Mahmoodi H, Fattahi M, Motevassel M. Graphene oxide–chitosan hydrogel for adsorptive removal of diclofenac from aqueous solution: preparation, characterization, kinetic and thermodynamic modelling. RSC advances. 2021;11(57):36289-304.
34. Chan K, Morikawa K, Shibata N, Zinchenko A. Adsorptive removal of heavy metal ions, organic dyes, and pharmaceuticals by dna–chitosan hydrogels. Gels. 2021 Aug 6;7(3):112.
35. Mojiri A, Andasht Kazeroon R, Gholami A. Cross-linked magnetic chitosan/activated biochar for removal of emerging micropollutants from water: Optimization by the artificial neural network. Water. 2019 Mar 17;11(3):551.
36. Karamchandani BM, Maurya PA, Awale M, Dalvi SG, Banat IM, Satpute SK. Optimization of fungal chitosan production from Cunninghamella echinulata using statistical designs. 3 Biotech. 2024 Mar;14(3):1-5.
37. Singh A, Kumar V, Anand S, Phukan D, Pandey N. Mixed organic and inorganic nitrogen sources enhance chitosan yield in novel isolates of Penicillium. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024 Jan 1; 256:128115.
38. Nwe N, Stevens WF. Effect of urea on fungal chitosan production in solid substrate fermentation. Process Biochemistry. 2004 Jul 30;39(11):1639-42.
39. Mishra A, Kumar S. Cyanobacterial biomass as N-supplement to agro-waste for hyper- production of laccase from Pleurotus ostreatus in solid state fermentation. Process Biochemistry. 2007 Apr 1;42(4):681-5.
40. Benjamin S, Pandey A. Coconut cake–a potent substrate for the production of lipase by Candida rugosa in solid‐state fermentation. Acta Biotechnologica. 1997;17(3):241-51.
41. Solís-Pereira S, Favela-Torres E, Viniegra-González G, Gutiérrez-Rojas M. Effects of different carbon sources on the synthesis of pectinase by Aspergillus niger in submerged and solid state fermentations. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 1993 Apr; 39:36-41.
42. Xie G, West TP. Citric acid production by Aspergillus niger ATCC 9142 from a treated ethanol fermentation co‐product using solid‐state fermentation. Letters in applied microbiology. 2009 May 1;48(5):639-44.
43. Chatterjee S, Chatterjee S, Chatterjee BP, Guha AK. Enhancement of growth and chitosanproduction by Rhizopus oryzae in whey medium by plant growth hormones. International
44. Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2008 Mar 1;42(2):120-6. Chatterjee S, Chatterjee S, Chatterjee BP, Guha AK. Influence of plant growth hormones on the growth of Mucor rouxii and chitosan production. Microbiological Research. 2009 Jan 1;164(3):347-51.
45. Akila RM. Fermentative production of fungal chitosan, a versatile biopolymer (perspectives and its applications). Adv Appl Sci Res. 2014;5(4):157-70.

Chitosan is the second most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose that can be extracted from marine sources, as well as from agricultural waste products such as mushrooms or other fungal sources following chitin deacetylation. The consistent production of these glycans by fungi is unaffected by seasonal changes, allowing for precise process control. This results in a more consistent quality of the final product. Currently, crustacean shells and other marine species are the most important sources of chitin/chitosan production globally. However, extraction from marine sources involves a number of problems, including an unreliable raw material supply chain. Large-scale chitosan extraction from crustaceans degrades the environment by requiring severe processing procedures such as alkali deproteinization. Many researches have recently been conducted to investigate alternate sources or environmentally friendly techniques for producing chitosan. Fungal biomass can be good alternate as well as environmentally friendly source for the extraction fungal chitosan. Due to its steady property and low molecular weight fungal chitosan is more suitable in application like pharma and biomedical. Chitosan can be used for an extensive range of applications due to its macromolecular structure and distinct physiological and biological features, such as biodegradability, solubility, biocompatibility, solubility, and reactivity. Chitosan can be used for a different range of applications that include in agricultural, biomedical, pharmaceutical, nutraceuticals, cosmetics and cosmeceuticals, and wastewater treatment. This review highlights the diverse applications of commercial chitosan products across various fields, alongside its primary focus on fungal chitosan extraction. It underscores the broad utility of chitosan beyond its extraction from fungi.

Keywords:Biopolymer, Fungal Chitosan, Chitosan, Chitin, Application, Production

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Philibert T, Lee BH, Fabien N. Current status and new perspectives on chitin and chitosan as functional biopolymers. Applied biochemistry and biotechnology. 2017 Apr; 181:1314-37.
2. Rahman RU, Mathur G. Effect of Different Media on Growth Kinetics Parameters of Aspergillus ochraceus: an Approach Towards Production of Fungal Biomass. Current Trends in Biotechnology and Pharmacy. 2021; 15(6):1-3.
3. Aranaz I, Mengíbar M, Acosta N, Heras A. Chitosan: a natural polymer with potential industrial applications. Science Vision. 2015;21(1-2):41-50.
4. Huq T, Khan A, Brown D, Dhayagude N, He Z, Ni Y. Sources, production and commercial applications of fungal chitosan: A review. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts. 2022 May 1;7(2):85-98.
5. Kaur S, Dhillon GS. The versatile biopolymer chitosan: potential sources, evaluation of extraction methods and applications. Critical reviews in microbiology. 2014 May 1;40(2):155 75.
6. Mourya VK, Inamdar NN, Choudhari YM. Chitooligosaccharides: Synthesis, characterization and applications. Polymer Science Series A. 2011 Jul;53(7):583-612.
7. Suryawanshi N, Eswari JS. Shrimp shell waste as a potential raw material for biorefinery—a revisit. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2022 May;12(5):1977-84.
8. Dai L, Wang Y, Li Z, Wang X, Duan C, Zhao W, Xiong C, Nie S, Xu Y, Ni Y. A Multifunctional self-crosslinked chitosan/cationic guar gum composite hydrogel and its versatile uses in phosphate-containing water treatment and energy storage. Carbohydrate polymers. 2020 Sep 15; 244:116472.
9. Dai L, Wang Y, Li Z, Wang X, Duan C, Zhao W, Xiong C, Nie S, Xu Y, Ni Y. A Multifunctional self-crosslinked chitosan/cationic guar gum composite hydrogel and its versatile uses in phosphate-containing water treatment and energy storage. Carbohydrate polymers .2020 Sep 15;244:116472.
10. Ghormade V, Pathan EK, Deshpande MV. Can fungi compete with marine sources for chitosan production? International journal of biological macromolecules. 2017 Nov 1; 104:1415- 21.
11. Wang W, Du Y, Qiu Y, Wang X, Hu Y, Yang J, Cai J, Kennedy JF. A new green technology for direct production of low molecular weight chitosan. Carbohydrate polymers. 2008 Oct 1;74(1):127-32.
12. Rane KD, Hoover DG. An evaluation of alkali and acid treatments for chitosan extraction from fungi. Process Biochemistry. 1993 Jan 1;28(2):115-8.
13. Hu KJ, Hu JL, Ho KP, Yeung KW. Screening of fungi for chitosan producers, and Copper adsorption capacity of fungal chitosan and chitosanaceous materials. Carbohydrate polymers. 2004 Oct 1;58(1):45-52.
14. Ghormade V, Pathan EK, Deshpande MV. Can fungi compete with marine sources for chitosan production? International journal of biological macromolecules. 2017 Nov 1; 104:1415 21.
15. Rinaudo M. Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications. Progress in polymer science. 2006 Jul 1;31(7):603-32.
16. Philibert T, Lee BH, Fabien N. Current status and new perspectives on chitin and chitosan as functional biopolymers. Applied biochemistry and biotechnology. 2017 Apr; 181:1314-37.
17. Suryawanshi N, Eswari JS. Shrimp shell waste as a potential raw material for biorefinery—a revisit. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2022 May;12(5):1977-84.
18. Abo Elsoud MM, El Kady EM. Current trends in fungal biosynthesis of chitin and chitosan. Bulletin of the National Research Centre. 2019 Dec;43(1):1-2.
19. Shibuya N, Minami E. Oligosaccharide signalling for defence responses in plant. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology. 2001 Nov 1;59(5):223-33.
20. Riseh RS, Vatankhah M, Hassanisaadi M, Varma RS. A review of chitosan nanoparticles: Nature's gift for transforming agriculture through smart and effective delivery mechanisms.  International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024 Jan 19:129522.
21. Ben-Shalom N, Ardi R, Pinto R, Aki C, Fallik E. Controlling gray mould caused by Botrytis cinerea in cucumber plants by means of chitosan. Crop Protection. 2003 Mar 1;22(2):285-90.
22. Batista AC, Souza Neto FE, Paiva WD. Review of fungal chitosan: past, present and perspectives in Brazil. Polímeros. 2018 Jun 28; 28:275-83.
23. Islam S, Bhuiyan MR, Islam MN. Chitin and chitosan: structure, properties, and applications in biomedical engineering. Journal of Polymers and the Environment. 2017 Sep; 25:854-66.
24. Thorlton J, Park C, Hughes T. Diet pills, powders, and liquids: predictors of use by healthy weight females. The Journal of School Nursing. 2014 Apr;30(2):129-35.
25. Azuma K, Ifuku S, Osaki T, Okamoto Y, Minami S. Preparation and biomedical applications of chitin and chitosan nanofibers. Journal of biomedical nanotechnology. 2014 Oct 1;10(10):2891-920.
26. Silva ÁF, de Souza AF, Pinheiro IO, de Campos-Takaki GM. Green synthesis of chitosan by Cunninghamella elegans UCP 1306 using sustainable substrates mediated morphological changes. Research, Society and Development. 2022 May 28;11(7): e38211729387.
27. Akbari-Alavijeh S, Shaddel R, Jafari SM. Encapsulation of food bioactives and nutraceuticals by various chitosan-based nanocarriers. Food hydrocolloids. 2020 Aug 1; 105:105774.
28. Patti AM, Katsiki N, Nikolic D, Al-Rasadi K, Rizzo M. Nutraceuticals in lipid-lowering treatment: a narrative review on the role of chitosan. Angiology. 2015 May;66(5):416-21.
29. Brigham CJ. Chitin and chitosan: sustainable, medically relevant biomaterials. Int. J. Wellness Ind. 2017 Aug 29;6(2):41-7.
30. Aranaz I, Acosta N, Civera C, Elorza B, Mingo J, Castro C, Gandía MD, Heras Caballero Cosmetics and cosmeceutical applications of chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives. Polymers. 2018 Feb 22;10 (2):213.
31. Guzmán E, Ortega F, Rubio RG. Chitosan: a promising multifunctional cosmetic ingredient or skin and hair care. Cosmetics. 2022 Sep 27;9(5):99.
32. Surgutskaia NS, Di Martino A, Zednik J, Ozaltin K, Lovecka L, Bergerova ED, Kimmer D, Svoboda J, Sedlarik V. Efficient Cu2+, Pb2+ and Ni2+ ion removal from wastewater using electrospun DTPA-modified chitosan/polyethylene oxide nanofibers. Separation and Purification Technology. 2020 Sep 15; 247:116914.
33. Mahmoodi H, Fattahi M, Motevassel M. Graphene oxide–chitosan hydrogel for adsorptive removal of diclofenac from aqueous solution: preparation, characterization, kinetic and thermodynamic modelling. RSC advances. 2021;11(57):36289-304.
34. Chan K, Morikawa K, Shibata N, Zinchenko A. Adsorptive removal of heavy metal ions, organic dyes, and pharmaceuticals by dna–chitosan hydrogels. Gels. 2021 Aug 6;7(3):112.
35. Mojiri A, Andasht Kazeroon R, Gholami A. Cross-linked magnetic chitosan/activated biochar for removal of emerging micropollutants from water: Optimization by the artificial neural network. Water. 2019 Mar 17;11(3):551.
36. Karamchandani BM, Maurya PA, Awale M, Dalvi SG, Banat IM, Satpute SK. Optimization of fungal chitosan production from Cunninghamella echinulata using statistical designs. 3 Biotech. 2024 Mar;14(3):1-5.
37. Singh A, Kumar V, Anand S, Phukan D, Pandey N. Mixed organic and inorganic nitrogen sources enhance chitosan yield in novel isolates of Penicillium. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024 Jan 1; 256:128115.
38. Nwe N, Stevens WF. Effect of urea on fungal chitosan production in solid substrate fermentation. Process Biochemistry. 2004 Jul 30;39(11):1639-42.
39. Mishra A, Kumar S. Cyanobacterial biomass as N-supplement to agro-waste for hyper- production of laccase from Pleurotus ostreatus in solid state fermentation. Process Biochemistry. 2007 Apr 1;42(4):681-5.
40. Benjamin S, Pandey A. Coconut cake–a potent substrate for the production of lipase by Candida rugosa in solid‐state fermentation. Acta Biotechnologica. 1997;17(3):241-51.
41. Solís-Pereira S, Favela-Torres E, Viniegra-González G, Gutiérrez-Rojas M. Effects of different carbon sources on the synthesis of pectinase by Aspergillus niger in submerged and solid state fermentations. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 1993 Apr; 39:36-41.
42. Xie G, West TP. Citric acid production by Aspergillus niger ATCC 9142 from a treated ethanol fermentation co‐product using solid‐state fermentation. Letters in applied microbiology. 2009 May 1;48(5):639-44.
43. Chatterjee S, Chatterjee S, Chatterjee BP, Guha AK. Enhancement of growth and chitosanproduction by Rhizopus oryzae in whey medium by plant growth hormones. International
44. Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2008 Mar 1;42(2):120-6. Chatterjee S, Chatterjee S, Chatterjee BP, Guha AK. Influence of plant growth hormones on the growth of Mucor rouxii and chitosan production. Microbiological Research. 2009 Jan 1;164(3):347-51.
45. Akila RM. Fermentative production of fungal chitosan, a versatile biopolymer (perspectives and its applications). Adv Appl Sci Res. 2014;5(4):157-70.