A gradual deterioration in physiological processes and heightened vulnerability to illnesses are hallmarks of aging, an unavoidable biological process. Turmeric (Curcuma longa), a staple in traditional medicine, has gained recognition for its role in mitigating the effects of aging and age-associated conditions. The therapeutic potential of turmeric is largely attributed to curcumin, its primary bioactive compound, which exhibits diverse pharmacological properties. Curcumin’s antioxidative capacity combats oxidative stress, a major driver of cellular aging, by scavenging free radicals and enhancing endogenous antioxidant systems. Its anti-inflammatory effects, mediated through pathways like NF-κB inhibition, alleviate chronic inflammation – a hallmark of aging. Furthermore, curcumin regulates metabolic processes by activating AMPK and balancing hormones, such as adiponectin and leptin, thus addressing metabolic dysfunctions common in aging populations. In the context of neuroprotection, curcumin enhances cognitive health by reducing amyloid-β aggregation and boosting brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, offering promise against neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, its cardiovascular benefits include lipid regulation and endothelial protection, while its skin-protective effects combat oxidative damage and promote dermal integrity. Despite its vast potential, the low bioavailability of curcumin remains a limitation, underscoring the need for advanced delivery systems. This review explores the mechanisms through which turmeric contributes to healthy aging, highlighting its role in oxidative stress management, inflammation reduction, metabolic regulation, neuroprotection, skin health, and cancer prevention.

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1. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin, the anti-inflammatory agent, against chronic diseases. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;76(11):1590–1611.
2. Gupta SC, Patchva S, Aggarwal BB. Therapeutic roles of curcumin: lessons learned from clinical trials. AAPS J. 2013;15(1):195–218.
3. Prasad S, Gupta SC, Tyagi AK. Curcumin: novel therapeutic opportunities for aging and age-associated diseases. Mech Ageing Dev. 2014;140:28–36.
4. Hewlings SJ, Kalman DS. Curcumin: a review of its effects on human health. Foods. 2017;6(10):92.
5. Goel A, Kunnumakkara AB, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin as "Curecumin": from kitchen to clinic. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008;75(4):787–809.
6. Pandey KB, Rizvi SI. Markers of oxidative stress in erythrocytes and plasma during aging in humans. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2010;3(1):2–12.
7. Reuter S, Gupta SC, Chaturvedi MM, Aggarwal BB. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: how are they linked? Free Radic Biol Med. 2010;49(11):1603–1616.
8. Shishodia S, Aggarwal BB. Nuclear factor-κB activation by curcumin: a multitargeted therapy for inflammatory diseases. Biochem Pharmacol. 2006;72(4):557–569.
9. Calder PC, Bosco N, Bourdet-Sicard R, et al. Health relevance of the modification of low-grade inflammation in ageing. Br J Nutr. 2017;118(8):455–468.
10. Bharti AC, Donato N, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) down-regulates COX-2, MMP-9, and VEGF through inhibition of NF-κB activation. Mol Pharmacol. 2003;65(5):789–800.
11. Kim YS, Ahn Y, Hong MH. Curcumin suppresses proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells by inhibiting MMP-9 expression. Nutr Res Pract. 2005;19(6):741–747.
12. Hardie DG. AMP-activated protein kinase: an energy sensor that regulates all aspects of cell function. Genes Dev. 2011;25(18):1895–1908.
13. Kumar A, Ekavali K, et al. Curcumin: a novel statin for aging? CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2015;14(5):729–735.
14. Maiti P, Dunbar GL, et al. Curcumin’s effect on aging and cognition: a preclinical perspective. Exp Gerontol. 2017;94:63–70.
15. Cole GM, Frautschy SA. The role of insulin and neurotrophic factor signaling in brain aging and Alzheimer’s Disease. Neuroscience. 2007;118(3):949–960.
16. Forestier S, et al. Role of curcumin in skin photoprotection and anti-aging. Dermatol Ther. 2017;30(4):159–170.
17. Cheng AL, et al. Phase I clinical trial of curcumin. Anticancer Res. 2001;21(4B):2895–2900.
18. Anand P, Kunnumakkara AB, Newman RA, Aggarwal BB. Bioavailability of curcumin: problems and promises. Mol Pharm. 2007;4(6):807–818.
19. Harman D. Free Radical Theory of Aging: An Update. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1067(1):10–21.
20. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Potential Therapeutic Effects of Curcumin, the Anti-Inflammatory Agent. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;78(11):1392–1408.
21. Kensler TW, et al. Nrf2 Signaling: A Key Mediator in Oxidative Stress and Longevity. J Nutr. 2007;137(12):2445–2452.
22. Shishodia S, et al. Curcumin: A Potent NF-κB Inhibitor. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005;70(5):700–713.
23. Libby P. Inflammation in Atherosclerosis. Nature. 2002;420(6917):868–874.
24. Gupta SC, et al. Regulation of Inflammatory Pathways by Curcumin. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2013;595–622.
25. Hardie DG, et al. AMPK: A Target for Drugs and Natural Products in the Treatment of Metabolic Disorders. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2012;11(10):821–837.
26. Weisberg SP, et al. Curcumin Enhances Insulin Sensitivity in Obesity. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(11):2234–2237.
27. Yin J, et al. Adipokines: Linking Adipocyte Dysfunction to Cardiometabolic Complications. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012;8(11):711–722.
28. Panahi Y, et al. Curcumin Effects on Serum Lipids in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome. Phytother Res. 2016;30(3):490–496.
29. Răcuciu M, et al. Curcumin’s Role in Endocrine Regulation. J Phytother Res. 2018;32(4):760–770.
30. Begum AN, et al. Curcumin Crosses the Blood-Brain Barrier and Displays Anti-Amyloidogenic Properties. J Alzheimers Dis. 2008;11(4):421–430.
31. Yang F, Lim GP, Begum AN, et al. Curcumin inhibits aggregation of amyloid-β peptides. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(7):5892–5901.
32. Ma Q, Li Y, Du J, et al. Curcumin modulates tau protein. Neurosci Lett. 2012;516(2):151–155.
33. Ryu JK, McLarnon JG. Curcumin and microglial activation in Alzheimer’s disease. Exp Neurol. 2008;213(2):315–329.
34. Xu Y, Ku B, Tie L, et al. Curcumin increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in neurodegeneration. J Psychopharmacol. 2017;31(1):92–100.
35. Sinha D, Bhattacharyya S, Majhi R, et al. Mitochondrial protection by curcumin. J Biomed Sci. 2015;22(1):63.
36. Aggarwal BB, Sundaram C, Malani N, et al. Cardioprotective effects of curcumin. Biochem Pharmacol. 2007;73(10):1394–1401.
37. Shin SK, Ha TY, McGregor RA, et al. Lipid-lowering activity of curcumin. Nutr Res Pract. 2011;5(6):503–508.
38. Howard C. Curcumin and endothelial function. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2004;1(4):186–192.
39. Yang Y, Duan W, Lin Y, et al. Curcumin’s role in reducing thrombosis. Thromb Res. 2016;141:1–5.
40. Baumann L. Skin aging and the role of antioxidants. J Dermatol Res Pract. 2007;52(3):231–237.
41. Chiu ML, Wu PH, Wang Y, et al. Curcumin neutralizes UV-induced reactive oxygen species. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed. 2016;32(4):186–194.
42. Mukherjee PK, Maity N, Nema NK, et al. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition by curcumin. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137(1):289–292.
43. Pan X, Huang T, Li W, et al. Melanin regulation by curcumin. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;17(3):607–616.
44. O’Toole PW, Jeffery IB. Gut microbiota and aging. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9(10):564К571.
45. Peterson CT, Kumar M, Maloney B, et al. Curcumin as a prebiotic agent. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2018;52(Suppl 1):S49–S54.
46. Wang Y, Liu J, Zhang H, et al. Modulation of gut microbiota by curcumin. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:1486.
47. Wang S, Lin Z, Wang T, et al. Curcumin in longevity regulation. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2014;58(6):1125–1136.
48. Goel A, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin in cancer prevention. Cancer Lett. 2008;267(2):133–164.
49. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Molecular targets of curcumin in cancer therapy. Biochem Pharmacol. 2013;85(10):1394–1401.
50. Prasad S, Tyagi AK, Aggarwal BB. Chemosensitization of cancer cells by curcumin. Pharm Res. 2014;31(3):391К408.
51. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin, the anti-inflammatory agent. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;78(11):1590–1611.
52. Gupta SC, Patchva S, Aggarwal BB. Therapeutic roles of curcumin: lessons learned from clinical trials. AAPS J. 2013;15(1):195–218.
53. Harman D. Free radical theory of aging: history. Ageing Res Rev. 2006;5(4):375–396.
54. Sinha R, Shukla R, Khan A, et al. Antioxidant potential of curcumin. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2015;57(3):162–167.
55. Hardie DG, Ross FA, Hawley SA. AMPK: an energy sensor for the cell. Trends Biochem Sci. 2012;37(4):165–175.
56. Weisberg SP, Leibel R, Ferrante AW Jr. Curcumin modulates adipose tissue macrophage polarization and improves insulin sensitivity. Diabetes. 2008;57(5):1236–1243.
57. Panahi Y, Khalili N, Sahebi E, et al. Curcumin supplementation and lipid profile improvement: a systematic review. Phytother Res. 2016;30(3):256–263.
58. Shin SK, Ha TY, McGregor RA, et al. Lipid-lowering effects of curcumin. Nutr Res. 2011;31(6):476–482.
59. Begum AN, Jones MR, Lim GP, et al. Curcumin structure–activity relationship and its neuroprotective effects. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1133(1):49–56.
60. Yang F, Lim GP, Begum AN, et al. Curcumin inhibits aggregation and toxicity of amyloid-beta peptides. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(7):5892–5901.
61. Goel A, Kunnumakkara AB, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin as “Curecumin”: from kitchen to clinic. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008;75(4):787–809.
62. Prasad S, Tyagi AK, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin and its anticancer properties. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2014;54(3):431–445.
63. O’Toole PW, Jeffery IB. Gut microbiota and aging. Science. 2012;336(6080):1268–1273.
64. Wang R, Chen J, Zhang L, et al. Prebiotic-like effects of curcumin on gut microbiota. J Funct Foods. 2017;30:142–151.
65. Mukherjee S, Ray S, Thakur RS. Anti-aging effects of curcumin on skin. Indian Dermatol Online J. 2011;2(3):174–179.
66. Pan Y, Wan J, Li Z, et al. Curcumin protects skin from UV-induced aging. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;17(3):388–394.
67. Xu Y, Ku B, Tie L, et al. Curcumin and BDNF expression. Neurosci Lett. 2017;656:1–6.
68. Ma QL, Zuo X, Yang F, et al. Curcumin increases brain BDNF levels and attenuates Alzheimer-like pathology. Neurobiol Aging. 2012;33(12):2909–2918.
69. Sinha R, Shukla R, Khan A, et al. Mitochondrial function preservation by curcumin. Mol Cell Biochem. 2015;407(1):151–162.

A gradual deterioration in physiological processes and heightened vulnerability to illnesses are hallmarks of aging, an unavoidable biological process. Turmeric (Curcuma longa), a staple in traditional medicine, has gained recognition for its role in mitigating the effects of aging and age-associated conditions. The therapeutic potential of turmeric is largely attributed to curcumin, its primary bioactive compound, which exhibits diverse pharmacological properties. Curcumin’s antioxidative capacity combats oxidative stress, a major driver of cellular aging, by scavenging free radicals and enhancing endogenous antioxidant systems. Its anti-inflammatory effects, mediated through pathways like NF-κB inhibition, alleviate chronic inflammation – a hallmark of aging. Furthermore, curcumin regulates metabolic processes by activating AMPK and balancing hormones, such as adiponectin and leptin, thus addressing metabolic dysfunctions common in aging populations. In the context of neuroprotection, curcumin enhances cognitive health by reducing amyloid-β aggregation and boosting brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, offering promise against neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, its cardiovascular benefits include lipid regulation and endothelial protection, while its skin-protective effects combat oxidative damage and promote dermal integrity. Despite its vast potential, the low bioavailability of curcumin remains a limitation, underscoring the need for advanced delivery systems. This review explores the mechanisms through which turmeric contributes to healthy aging, highlighting its role in oxidative stress management, inflammation reduction, metabolic regulation, neuroprotection, skin health, and cancer prevention.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin, the anti-inflammatory agent, against chronic diseases. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;76(11):1590–1611.
2. Gupta SC, Patchva S, Aggarwal BB. Therapeutic roles of curcumin: lessons learned from clinical trials. AAPS J. 2013;15(1):195–218.
3. Prasad S, Gupta SC, Tyagi AK. Curcumin: novel therapeutic opportunities for aging and age-associated diseases. Mech Ageing Dev. 2014;140:28–36.
4. Hewlings SJ, Kalman DS. Curcumin: a review of its effects on human health. Foods. 2017;6(10):92.
5. Goel A, Kunnumakkara AB, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin as "Curecumin": from kitchen to clinic. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008;75(4):787–809.
6. Pandey KB, Rizvi SI. Markers of oxidative stress in erythrocytes and plasma during aging in humans. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2010;3(1):2–12.
7. Reuter S, Gupta SC, Chaturvedi MM, Aggarwal BB. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: how are they linked? Free Radic Biol Med. 2010;49(11):1603–1616.
8. Shishodia S, Aggarwal BB. Nuclear factor-κB activation by curcumin: a multitargeted therapy for inflammatory diseases. Biochem Pharmacol. 2006;72(4):557–569.
9. Calder PC, Bosco N, Bourdet-Sicard R, et al. Health relevance of the modification of low-grade inflammation in ageing. Br J Nutr. 2017;118(8):455–468.
10. Bharti AC, Donato N, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) down-regulates COX-2, MMP-9, and VEGF through inhibition of NF-κB activation. Mol Pharmacol. 2003;65(5):789–800.
11. Kim YS, Ahn Y, Hong MH. Curcumin suppresses proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells by inhibiting MMP-9 expression. Nutr Res Pract. 2005;19(6):741–747.
12. Hardie DG. AMP-activated protein kinase: an energy sensor that regulates all aspects of cell function. Genes Dev. 2011;25(18):1895–1908.
13. Kumar A, Ekavali K, et al. Curcumin: a novel statin for aging? CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2015;14(5):729–735.
14. Maiti P, Dunbar GL, et al. Curcumin’s effect on aging and cognition: a preclinical perspective. Exp Gerontol. 2017;94:63–70.
15. Cole GM, Frautschy SA. The role of insulin and neurotrophic factor signaling in brain aging and Alzheimer’s Disease. Neuroscience. 2007;118(3):949–960.
16. Forestier S, et al. Role of curcumin in skin photoprotection and anti-aging. Dermatol Ther. 2017;30(4):159–170.
17. Cheng AL, et al. Phase I clinical trial of curcumin. Anticancer Res. 2001;21(4B):2895–2900.
18. Anand P, Kunnumakkara AB, Newman RA, Aggarwal BB. Bioavailability of curcumin: problems and promises. Mol Pharm. 2007;4(6):807–818.
19. Harman D. Free Radical Theory of Aging: An Update. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1067(1):10–21.
20. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Potential Therapeutic Effects of Curcumin, the Anti-Inflammatory Agent. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;78(11):1392–1408.
21. Kensler TW, et al. Nrf2 Signaling: A Key Mediator in Oxidative Stress and Longevity. J Nutr. 2007;137(12):2445–2452.
22. Shishodia S, et al. Curcumin: A Potent NF-κB Inhibitor. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005;70(5):700–713.
23. Libby P. Inflammation in Atherosclerosis. Nature. 2002;420(6917):868–874.
24. Gupta SC, et al. Regulation of Inflammatory Pathways by Curcumin. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2013;595–622.
25. Hardie DG, et al. AMPK: A Target for Drugs and Natural Products in the Treatment of Metabolic Disorders. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2012;11(10):821–837.
26. Weisberg SP, et al. Curcumin Enhances Insulin Sensitivity in Obesity. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(11):2234–2237.
27. Yin J, et al. Adipokines: Linking Adipocyte Dysfunction to Cardiometabolic Complications. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012;8(11):711–722.
28. Panahi Y, et al. Curcumin Effects on Serum Lipids in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome. Phytother Res. 2016;30(3):490–496.
29. Răcuciu M, et al. Curcumin’s Role in Endocrine Regulation. J Phytother Res. 2018;32(4):760–770.
30. Begum AN, et al. Curcumin Crosses the Blood-Brain Barrier and Displays Anti-Amyloidogenic Properties. J Alzheimers Dis. 2008;11(4):421–430.
31. Yang F, Lim GP, Begum AN, et al. Curcumin inhibits aggregation of amyloid-β peptides. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(7):5892–5901.
32. Ma Q, Li Y, Du J, et al. Curcumin modulates tau protein. Neurosci Lett. 2012;516(2):151–155.
33. Ryu JK, McLarnon JG. Curcumin and microglial activation in Alzheimer’s disease. Exp Neurol. 2008;213(2):315–329.
34. Xu Y, Ku B, Tie L, et al. Curcumin increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in neurodegeneration. J Psychopharmacol. 2017;31(1):92–100.
35. Sinha D, Bhattacharyya S, Majhi R, et al. Mitochondrial protection by curcumin. J Biomed Sci. 2015;22(1):63.
36. Aggarwal BB, Sundaram C, Malani N, et al. Cardioprotective effects of curcumin. Biochem Pharmacol. 2007;73(10):1394–1401.
37. Shin SK, Ha TY, McGregor RA, et al. Lipid-lowering activity of curcumin. Nutr Res Pract. 2011;5(6):503–508.
38. Howard C. Curcumin and endothelial function. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2004;1(4):186–192.
39. Yang Y, Duan W, Lin Y, et al. Curcumin’s role in reducing thrombosis. Thromb Res. 2016;141:1–5.
40. Baumann L. Skin aging and the role of antioxidants. J Dermatol Res Pract. 2007;52(3):231–237.
41. Chiu ML, Wu PH, Wang Y, et al. Curcumin neutralizes UV-induced reactive oxygen species. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed. 2016;32(4):186–194.
42. Mukherjee PK, Maity N, Nema NK, et al. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition by curcumin. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137(1):289–292.
43. Pan X, Huang T, Li W, et al. Melanin regulation by curcumin. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;17(3):607–616.
44. O’Toole PW, Jeffery IB. Gut microbiota and aging. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9(10):564К571.
45. Peterson CT, Kumar M, Maloney B, et al. Curcumin as a prebiotic agent. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2018;52(Suppl 1):S49–S54.
46. Wang Y, Liu J, Zhang H, et al. Modulation of gut microbiota by curcumin. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:1486.
47. Wang S, Lin Z, Wang T, et al. Curcumin in longevity regulation. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2014;58(6):1125–1136.
48. Goel A, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin in cancer prevention. Cancer Lett. 2008;267(2):133–164.
49. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Molecular targets of curcumin in cancer therapy. Biochem Pharmacol. 2013;85(10):1394–1401.
50. Prasad S, Tyagi AK, Aggarwal BB. Chemosensitization of cancer cells by curcumin. Pharm Res. 2014;31(3):391К408.
51. Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB. Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin, the anti-inflammatory agent. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;78(11):1590–1611.
52. Gupta SC, Patchva S, Aggarwal BB. Therapeutic roles of curcumin: lessons learned from clinical trials. AAPS J. 2013;15(1):195–218.
53. Harman D. Free radical theory of aging: history. Ageing Res Rev. 2006;5(4):375–396.
54. Sinha R, Shukla R, Khan A, et al. Antioxidant potential of curcumin. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2015;57(3):162–167.
55. Hardie DG, Ross FA, Hawley SA. AMPK: an energy sensor for the cell. Trends Biochem Sci. 2012;37(4):165–175.
56. Weisberg SP, Leibel R, Ferrante AW Jr. Curcumin modulates adipose tissue macrophage polarization and improves insulin sensitivity. Diabetes. 2008;57(5):1236–1243.
57. Panahi Y, Khalili N, Sahebi E, et al. Curcumin supplementation and lipid profile improvement: a systematic review. Phytother Res. 2016;30(3):256–263.
58. Shin SK, Ha TY, McGregor RA, et al. Lipid-lowering effects of curcumin. Nutr Res. 2011;31(6):476–482.
59. Begum AN, Jones MR, Lim GP, et al. Curcumin structure–activity relationship and its neuroprotective effects. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1133(1):49–56.
60. Yang F, Lim GP, Begum AN, et al. Curcumin inhibits aggregation and toxicity of amyloid-beta peptides. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(7):5892–5901.
61. Goel A, Kunnumakkara AB, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin as “Curecumin”: from kitchen to clinic. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008;75(4):787–809.
62. Prasad S, Tyagi AK, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin and its anticancer properties. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2014;54(3):431–445.
63. O’Toole PW, Jeffery IB. Gut microbiota and aging. Science. 2012;336(6080):1268–1273.
64. Wang R, Chen J, Zhang L, et al. Prebiotic-like effects of curcumin on gut microbiota. J Funct Foods. 2017;30:142–151.
65. Mukherjee S, Ray S, Thakur RS. Anti-aging effects of curcumin on skin. Indian Dermatol Online J. 2011;2(3):174–179.
66. Pan Y, Wan J, Li Z, et al. Curcumin protects skin from UV-induced aging. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;17(3):388–394.
67. Xu Y, Ku B, Tie L, et al. Curcumin and BDNF expression. Neurosci Lett. 2017;656:1–6.
68. Ma QL, Zuo X, Yang F, et al. Curcumin increases brain BDNF levels and attenuates Alzheimer-like pathology. Neurobiol Aging. 2012;33(12):2909–2918.
69. Sinha R, Shukla R, Khan A, et al. Mitochondrial function preservation by curcumin. Mol Cell Biochem. 2015;407(1):151–162.