Hybrid organic–inorganic metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a major focus of photovoltaic research due to their remarkable increase in power conversion efficiency, reaching 28% within a short period. Perovskite materials exhibit several attractive properties, including long charge-carrier diffusion lengths, tunable band gaps, and excellent light absorption capability. In addition, their low-cost fabrication processes combined with high efficiency make PSCs strong competitors to conventional silicon-based solar cells. However, challenges – such as device instability, current density–voltage (J–V) hysteresis, and lead toxicity – continue to hinder their large-scale commercialization and long-term reliability. This review begins with an overview of the crystal and electronic structures of perovskite materials based on recent research developments. It further examines the evolution of PSC technology, highlighting the roles of individual device components, various device architectures, fabrication techniques, and the photovoltaic performance achieved through these methods. The review also discusses the major obstacles limiting the commercialization of PSCs, including the influence of crystal structure, processing temperature, moisture, oxygen, and ultraviolet radiation on device stability. The stability of other functional layers within PSCs is also critically analyzed. Furthermore, the issue of lead toxicity and recent progress in lead-free or lead-reduced alternatives are reviewed to evaluate the environmental sustainability of PSC technology. The mechanisms responsible for J–V hysteresis are briefly addressed as well. Finally, the review outlines current research needs and future directions aimed at overcoming the key limitations of PSCs and enabling their practical commercialization.

Keywords: Photovoltaics, perovskite solar cells (PSCs), hybrid organic–inorganic perovskites, power conversion efficiency, device stability, J–V hysteresis, lead toxicity

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1. Afre RA, Pugliese D. Perovskite solar cells: A review of the latest advances in materials, fabrication techniques, and stability enhancement strategies. Micromachines. 2024;15(2):
2. Wei J, Liu F. Advances of perovskite solar cells. Crystals. 2024;14(10):
3. Correa-Baena JP, Saliba M, Abate A, Tress W, Hagfeldt A, Grätzel M. The rapid evolution of highly efficient perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ Sci. 2017;10(3): 710–727..
4. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Best research-cell efficiency chart. 2025 [cited 2026 May 28]. Available from: https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html
5. Maziviero FV, Melo DMA, Medeiros RLBA, et al. Advancements and prospects in perovskite solar cells: From hybrid to all-inorganic materials. Nanomaterials. 2024;14(4):332.
6. Gao F. Perovskite solar cells and light emitting diodes: Materials chemistry, device physics and relationship. Chem Rev. 2025;125(11):5057–5162.
7. Jiang Q, Zhu K. Rapid advances enabling high-performance inverted perovskite solar cells. Nat Rev Mater. 2024;9(6):399–419.
8. Noman M, Khan Z, Jan ST. A comprehensive review on the advancements and challenges in perovskite solar cell technology. RSC Adv. 2024;14(8):5085–5131.
9. Yang C, Hu W, Liu J, et al. Achievements, challenges, and future prospects for industrialization of perovskite solar cells. Light Sci Appl. 2024;13:227.
10. Rong Y, Hu Y, Mei A, Tan H, Saidaminov MI, Seok SI, et al. Challenges for commercializing perovskite solar cells. Science. 2018;361(6408):eaat8235. doi:10.1126/science.aat8235.
11. Duan T, Guo P, Feldmann S, Sutter-Fella CM, Zhou Y. Bio-inspired multiscale design for perovskite solar cells. Nat Rev Clean Technol. 2025;1(9):638–655.
12. Zhang W, Liu H, Yan F, Dong B, Wang HL. Recent progress of low-toxicity poor-lead all-inorganic perovskite solar cells. Small Methods. 2024;8(2):2300421. doi:10.1002/smtd.202300421.
13. Wojciechowski K, Forgács D, Rivera T. Industrial scalability and commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics. Adv Energy Mater. 2024;14:2400112.
14. Wang K, Zheng J, Yu R, Tan ZA. Recent progress on high-efficiency perovskite/organic tandem solar cells. Nanomaterials. 2025 May 15;15(10):745.

Hybrid organic–inorganic metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a major focus of photovoltaic research due to their remarkable increase in power conversion efficiency, reaching 28% within a short period. Perovskite materials exhibit several attractive properties, including long charge-carrier diffusion lengths, tunable band gaps, and excellent light absorption capability. In addition, their low-cost fabrication processes combined with high efficiency make PSCs strong competitors to conventional silicon-based solar cells. However, challenges – such as device instability, current density–voltage (J–V) hysteresis, and lead toxicity – continue to hinder their large-scale commercialization and long-term reliability. This review begins with an overview of the crystal and electronic structures of perovskite materials based on recent research developments. It further examines the evolution of PSC technology, highlighting the roles of individual device components, various device architectures, fabrication techniques, and the photovoltaic performance achieved through these methods. The review also discusses the major obstacles limiting the commercialization of PSCs, including the influence of crystal structure, processing temperature, moisture, oxygen, and ultraviolet radiation on device stability. The stability of other functional layers within PSCs is also critically analyzed. Furthermore, the issue of lead toxicity and recent progress in lead-free or lead-reduced alternatives are reviewed to evaluate the environmental sustainability of PSC technology. The mechanisms responsible for J–V hysteresis are briefly addressed as well. Finally, the review outlines current research needs and future directions aimed at overcoming the key limitations of PSCs and enabling their practical commercialization.

Keywords: Photovoltaics, perovskite solar cells (PSCs), hybrid organic–inorganic perovskites, power conversion efficiency, device stability, J–V hysteresis, lead toxicity

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Afre RA, Pugliese D. Perovskite solar cells: A review of the latest advances in materials, fabrication techniques, and stability enhancement strategies. Micromachines. 2024;15(2):
2. Wei J, Liu F. Advances of perovskite solar cells. Crystals. 2024;14(10):
3. Correa-Baena JP, Saliba M, Abate A, Tress W, Hagfeldt A, Grätzel M. The rapid evolution of highly efficient perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ Sci. 2017;10(3): 710–727..
4. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Best research-cell efficiency chart. 2025 [cited 2026 May 28]. Available from: https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html
5. Maziviero FV, Melo DMA, Medeiros RLBA, et al. Advancements and prospects in perovskite solar cells: From hybrid to all-inorganic materials. Nanomaterials. 2024;14(4):332.
6. Gao F. Perovskite solar cells and light emitting diodes: Materials chemistry, device physics and relationship. Chem Rev. 2025;125(11):5057–5162.
7. Jiang Q, Zhu K. Rapid advances enabling high-performance inverted perovskite solar cells. Nat Rev Mater. 2024;9(6):399–419.
8. Noman M, Khan Z, Jan ST. A comprehensive review on the advancements and challenges in perovskite solar cell technology. RSC Adv. 2024;14(8):5085–5131.
9. Yang C, Hu W, Liu J, et al. Achievements, challenges, and future prospects for industrialization of perovskite solar cells. Light Sci Appl. 2024;13:227.
10. Rong Y, Hu Y, Mei A, Tan H, Saidaminov MI, Seok SI, et al. Challenges for commercializing perovskite solar cells. Science. 2018;361(6408):eaat8235. doi:10.1126/science.aat8235.
11. Duan T, Guo P, Feldmann S, Sutter-Fella CM, Zhou Y. Bio-inspired multiscale design for perovskite solar cells. Nat Rev Clean Technol. 2025;1(9):638–655.
12. Zhang W, Liu H, Yan F, Dong B, Wang HL. Recent progress of low-toxicity poor-lead all-inorganic perovskite solar cells. Small Methods. 2024;8(2):2300421. doi:10.1002/smtd.202300421.
13. Wojciechowski K, Forgács D, Rivera T. Industrial scalability and commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics. Adv Energy Mater. 2024;14:2400112.
14. Wang K, Zheng J, Yu R, Tan ZA. Recent progress on high-efficiency perovskite/organic tandem solar cells. Nanomaterials. 2025 May 15;15(10):745.