Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review

Verla Evelyn Ngozi; Njoku Thony R.F; Martin C. Ekeh; Verla Andrew Wirnkor; Uche Cosmas Chinedu; Morah Arthur C.; Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe; Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu; Anyanwu Jonathan; Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka

Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review

Verla Evelyn Ngozi, Njoku Thony R.F, Martin C. Ekeh, Verla Andrew Wirnkor, Uche Cosmas Chinedu, Morah Arthur C., Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe, Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu, Anyanwu Jonathan, Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka | International Journal of Environmental Chemistry | Vol 11, Issue 2 | pp. 20-35 | ISSN: 2456-5245

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs), pervasive environmental pollutants, pose escalating threats to human health, with children emerging as a critically vulnerable population. This systematic review, guided by PRISMA protocols, synthesizes evidence from 2015–2025 on MPs exposure risks from reusable plastic water bottles among school-aged children (4–15 years). Findings reveal significant MPs leaching into drinking water, influenced by bottle material such as PET and PP, usage duration, and cleaning practices. Children ingest an estimated 553 MPs daily, with infants exposed to up to 1.6 million particles via formula, underscoring acute vulnerability. MPs release harmful additives, including endocrine disruptors like phthalates and bisphenol A, linked to developmental, respiratory, and neurotoxic risks. Alarmingly, synergistic interactions between MPs and heavy metals such as, Pb, Cd, As are common plastic additives that amplify toxicity, potentially disrupting hormonal, immune, and cognitive functions. Despite evidence of harm, regulatory gaps persist, with no enforceable standards for MPs in drinking water. Urgent mitigation strategies include transitioning to glass/stainless steel containers, improving water filtration, and prioritizing public education. This review highlights the imperative for proactive policies, rigorous safety assessments, and interdisciplinary research to safeguard child health. By bridging evidence-to-action gaps, we advocate for holistic interventions—material innovation, enhanced regulations, and global awareness—to curb MPs pollution and protect future generations from this invisible yet insidious threat.

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References

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How to cite this article

APA

Ngozi, V. E., R.F, N. T., Ekeh, M. C., Wirnkor, V. A., Chinedu, U. C., C., M. A., Ndukwe, U. C., Ukachukwu, U. L., Jonathan, A., & Njideka, N. T. (2025). Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 11(2), 20-35.

MLA

Ngozi, Verla Evelyn, et al. “Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, vol. 11, no. 2, 2025, pp. 20-35.

Chicago

Verla Evelyn Ngozi, Njoku Thony R.F, Martin C. Ekeh, Verla Andrew Wirnkor, Uche Cosmas Chinedu, Morah Arthur C., Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe, Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu, Anyanwu Jonathan, and Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka. “Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Environmental Chemistry 11, no. 2 (2025): 20-35.

Vancouver

Ngozi VE, R.F NT, Ekeh MC, Wirnkor VA, Chinedu UC, C. MA, Ndukwe UC, Ukachukwu UL, Jonathan A, Njideka NT. Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry. 2025;11(2):20-35.

BibTeX

@article{NgoziVE2025,
author = {Verla Evelyn Ngozi and Njoku Thony R.F and Martin C. Ekeh and Verla Andrew Wirnkor and Uche Cosmas Chinedu and Morah Arthur C. and Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe and Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu and Anyanwu Jonathan and Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka},
title = {Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review},
journal = {International Journal of Environmental Chemistry},
year = {2025},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
pages = {20--35},
issn = {2456-5245},
url = {https://journalspub.com/publication/ijec/article=23157}
}

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Abstract

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References

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Ke D, Zheng J, Liu X, Xu X, Zhao L, Gu Y, et al. Occurrence of microplastics and disturbance of gut microbiota: a pilot study of preschool children in Xiamen, China. EBioMedicine. 2023;97:104828. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104828.
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Li D, Shi Y, Yang L, Xiao L, Kehoe DK, Gun’ko YK, et al. Microplastic release from the degradation of polypropylene feeding bottles during infant formula preparation. Nat Food. 2020;1(11):746-54. doi:10.1038/s43016-020-00171-y.
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Mason SA, Welch VG, Neratko J. Synthetic polymer contamination in bottled water. Front Chem. 2018;6:407. doi:10.3389/fchem.2018.00407.
Monique M, Giuseppe P, Francesca F, Davide DP, Savoca S, Gioele C, et al. Investigating the effects of microplastic ingestion in Scyliorhinus canicula from the South of Sicily. Sci Total Environ. 2022;850:157875. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157875.
Global Plastics Outlook: Economic Drivers, Environmental Impacts and Policy Options. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2022.
Otorkpa OJ, Otorkpa CO. Health effects of microplastics and nanoplastics: review of published case reports. Environ Anal Health Toxicol. 2024;39(2):e2024020-0. doi:10.5620/eaht.2024020.
The Pew Charitable Trusts, SYSTEMIQ. Breaking the Plastic Wave: A Comprehensive Assessment of Pathways towards Stopping Ocean Plastic Pollution: Summary Report. 2020.
Prata JC, da Costa JP, Lopes I, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos TAP. Environmental exposure to microplastics: An overview on possible human health effects. Sci Total Environ. 2020;702:134455. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455.
Ragusa A, Svelato A, Santacroce C, Catalano P, Notarstefano V, Carnevali O, et al. Plasticenta: first evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environ Int. 2021;146:106274. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274.
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Rist S, Sommer U. Susceptibility of five freshwater crustaceans to polystyrene microplastics. Sci Total Environ. 2021;751:141603. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141603.
Rochman CM, Hoh E, Hentschel BT, Kaye S. Long-term field measurement of sorption of organic contaminants to microplastic in marine environments. Environ Sci Technol. 2013;47(22):12882-91. doi:10.1021/es401288x.
Roman L, Schuyler Q, Wilcox C, Hardesty BD. Plastic pollution is killing marine megafauna, but how do we prioritize policies to reduce mortality? Conserv Lett. 2021;14(3):e12781. doi:10.1111/conl.12781.
Saraluck A, Techarang T, Bunyapipat P, Boonchuwong K, Pullaput Y, Mordmuang A, et al. Detection of microplastics in human breast milk and its association with changes in human milk bacterial microbiota. J Clin Med. 2024;13(14):4029. doi:10.3390/jcm131404029.
Schwabl P, Köppel S, Königshofer P, Bucsics T, Trauner M, Reiberger T, et al. Detection of microplastics in human stool. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171(7):453-7. doi:10.7326/M19-0618.
Shammas NK, Kosior E. Reducing microplastic particles in drinking water bottles. J Healthc Eng. 2020;2020:8836945. doi:10.1155/2020/8836945.
Sharma RK, Kumari U, Kumar S. Impact of microplastics on pregnancy and fetal development: A systematic review. Cureus. 2024;16(5):e60712. doi:10.7759/cureus.60712.
Sripada K, Wierzbicka A, Abass K, Grimalt JO, Erbe A, Röllin HB, et al. A children's health perspective on nano- and microplastics. Environ Health Perspect. 2022;130(1):15001. doi:10.1289/EHP9086.
Sun J, Dai X, Wang Q, van Loosdrecht MCM, Ni B-J. Microplastics in wastewater treatment plants: Detection, occurrence and removal. Water Res. 2019;152:21-37. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.050.
Thushari GGN, Senevirathna JDM. Plastic pollution in the marine environment. Heliyon. 2020;6:e04709. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709.
Verla AW, Enyoh CE, Verla EN. Microplastics-toxic chemical interaction: a review study on quantified levels, mechanism and implication. Springer Nature Appl Sci. 2019;1(6):1400. doi:10.1007/s42452-019-1352-0.
Verla AW, Enyoh CE, Verla EN. Microplastics, an emerging concern: A review Analytical technique for detecting and quantifying microplastics. Anal Methods Environ Chem J. 2019;2:15-32. doi:10.2400/amecj.
Verla AW, Enyoh CE, Verla EN. The importance of microplastics pollution studies in water and soil of Nigeria ecosystems. Anal Methods Environ Chem J. 2019;2:89-96. doi:10.24200/amecj.v2.i01.44.
Malafaia G, Barceló D. Microplastics in human samples: recent advances, hot-spots, and analytical challenges. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2023;161:116911. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2023.116911.
Verla AW, Verla EN, Ajero CM, Kelechi LC, Ngozi OSM, Enyoh CE, et al. Biomonitoring of concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in blood and urine of children at playgrounds within Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Environ Anal Health Toxicol. 2019;34(2):1-11. doi:10.5620/eaht.e2019011.
Verla AW, Verla EN, Ajero CM, Lele CK, Oguchukwu S, Enyoh CE, et al. Biomonitoring of heavy metals in blood and urine of children from Owerri, Eastern Nigeria. J Chem Health Risks. 2019;9(1):11-26.
Verla EN, Verla AW, Ugwulor L. Seasonal variation of heavy metals in playgrounds of public schools within Owerri metropolis, Imo State, Nigeria. Int Lett Chem Phys Astron. 2015;50:61-70.
Verla EN, Wirnkor Verla A, Osisi AF, Okeke PN, Enyoh CE, et al. Finding a relationship between mobility factors of selected heavy metals and soil particle size in soils from children’s playgrounds. Environ Monit Assess. 2019;191(11):742. doi:10.1007/s10661-019-7937-7.
Vethaak AD, Legler J. Microplastics and human health. Science. 2021;371(6530):672-4. doi:10.1126/science.abe5046.
Vethaak AD, Legler J, Schlezinger JJ, Robertson LW, Rizk Z, Jha PK, et al. Hazard identification and risk assessment of microplastic particles in seafood. Rev Environ Health. 2021;36(1):125-42. doi:10.1515/reveh-2020-0087.
Wagner M, Lambert S. Freshwater microplastics: emerging environmental contaminants? In: Freshwater microplastics. Cham: Springer; 2018. p.1-13.
Westerhoff P, Prapaipong P, Shock E, Hristovski K. Occurrence and human health risk assessment of chemicals leaching from plastic packaging. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2015;68:103-11. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2015.03.003.
Microplastics in drinking-water. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019.
Wright SL, Kelly FJ. Plastic and human health: A micro issue? WIREs Water. 2017;4(6):e1268. doi:10.1002/wat2.1268.
Wright SL, Kelly FJ. Plastic and human health: a review of potential hazards. Environ Int. 2017;107:106-14. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.07.035.
Wright SL, Kelly FJ. Plastic and human health: A review of potential hazards. Environ Pollut. 2017;220:483-93. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.063.
Yong CQY, Valiyaveettil S, Tang BL. Toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics in mammalian systems. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(5):1509. doi:10.3390/ijerph17051509.
Yuan C, Almuhtaram H, McKie MJ, Andrews RC. Assessment of microplastic sampling and extraction methods for drinking waters. Chemosphere. 2022;286:131881. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131881.
Zuri G, Karanasiou A, Lacorte S. Microplastics: Human exposure assessment through air, water, and food. Environ Int. 2023;179:108150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2023.108150.
轴 Microplastics in the human environment: Discovery, identification and toxicity. Environ Res. 2023;216:114649. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2023.114649.
Chatterjee S, Sharma S. Microplastics in our oceans and marine health. Field Actions Sci Rep. 2019;19:54-61.

How to cite this article

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Chicago

Verla Evelyn Ngozi, Njoku Thony R.F, Martin C. Ekeh, Verla Andrew Wirnkor, Uche Cosmas Chinedu, Morah Arthur C., Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe, Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu, Anyanwu Jonathan, and Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka. “Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Environmental Chemistry 11, no. 2 (2025): 20-35.

Vancouver

BibTeX

@article{NgoziVE2025,
author = {Verla Evelyn Ngozi and Njoku Thony R.F and Martin C. Ekeh and Verla Andrew Wirnkor and Uche Cosmas Chinedu and Morah Arthur C. and Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe and Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu and Anyanwu Jonathan and Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka},
title = {Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review},
journal = {International Journal of Environmental Chemistry},
year = {2025},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
pages = {20--35},
issn = {2456-5245},
url = {https://journalspub.com/publication/ijec/article=23157}
}

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Rist S, Sommer U. Susceptibility of five freshwater crustaceans to polystyrene microplastics. Sci Total Environ. 2021;751:141603. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141603.
Rochman CM, Hoh E, Hentschel BT, Kaye S. Long-term field measurement of sorption of organic contaminants to microplastic in marine environments. Environ Sci Technol. 2013;47(22):12882-91. doi:10.1021/es401288x.
Roman L, Schuyler Q, Wilcox C, Hardesty BD. Plastic pollution is killing marine megafauna, but how do we prioritize policies to reduce mortality? Conserv Lett. 2021;14(3):e12781. doi:10.1111/conl.12781.
Saraluck A, Techarang T, Bunyapipat P, Boonchuwong K, Pullaput Y, Mordmuang A, et al. Detection of microplastics in human breast milk and its association with changes in human milk bacterial microbiota. J Clin Med. 2024;13(14):4029. doi:10.3390/jcm131404029.
Schwabl P, Köppel S, Königshofer P, Bucsics T, Trauner M, Reiberger T, et al. Detection of microplastics in human stool. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171(7):453-7. doi:10.7326/M19-0618.
Shammas NK, Kosior E. Reducing microplastic particles in drinking water bottles. J Healthc Eng. 2020;2020:8836945. doi:10.1155/2020/8836945.
Sharma RK, Kumari U, Kumar S. Impact of microplastics on pregnancy and fetal development: A systematic review. Cureus. 2024;16(5):e60712. doi:10.7759/cureus.60712.
Sripada K, Wierzbicka A, Abass K, Grimalt JO, Erbe A, Röllin HB, et al. A children's health perspective on nano- and microplastics. Environ Health Perspect. 2022;130(1):15001. doi:10.1289/EHP9086.
Sun J, Dai X, Wang Q, van Loosdrecht MCM, Ni B-J. Microplastics in wastewater treatment plants: Detection, occurrence and removal. Water Res. 2019;152:21-37. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.050.
Thushari GGN, Senevirathna JDM. Plastic pollution in the marine environment. Heliyon. 2020;6:e04709. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709.
Verla AW, Enyoh CE, Verla EN. Microplastics-toxic chemical interaction: a review study on quantified levels, mechanism and implication. Springer Nature Appl Sci. 2019;1(6):1400. doi:10.1007/s42452-019-1352-0.
Verla AW, Enyoh CE, Verla EN. Microplastics, an emerging concern: A review Analytical technique for detecting and quantifying microplastics. Anal Methods Environ Chem J. 2019;2:15-32. doi:10.2400/amecj.
Verla AW, Enyoh CE, Verla EN. The importance of microplastics pollution studies in water and soil of Nigeria ecosystems. Anal Methods Environ Chem J. 2019;2:89-96. doi:10.24200/amecj.v2.i01.44.
Malafaia G, Barceló D. Microplastics in human samples: recent advances, hot-spots, and analytical challenges. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2023;161:116911. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2023.116911.
Verla AW, Verla EN, Ajero CM, Kelechi LC, Ngozi OSM, Enyoh CE, et al. Biomonitoring of concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in blood and urine of children at playgrounds within Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Environ Anal Health Toxicol. 2019;34(2):1-11. doi:10.5620/eaht.e2019011.
Verla AW, Verla EN, Ajero CM, Lele CK, Oguchukwu S, Enyoh CE, et al. Biomonitoring of heavy metals in blood and urine of children from Owerri, Eastern Nigeria. J Chem Health Risks. 2019;9(1):11-26.
Verla EN, Verla AW, Ugwulor L. Seasonal variation of heavy metals in playgrounds of public schools within Owerri metropolis, Imo State, Nigeria. Int Lett Chem Phys Astron. 2015;50:61-70.
Verla EN, Wirnkor Verla A, Osisi AF, Okeke PN, Enyoh CE, et al. Finding a relationship between mobility factors of selected heavy metals and soil particle size in soils from children’s playgrounds. Environ Monit Assess. 2019;191(11):742. doi:10.1007/s10661-019-7937-7.
Vethaak AD, Legler J. Microplastics and human health. Science. 2021;371(6530):672-4. doi:10.1126/science.abe5046.
Vethaak AD, Legler J, Schlezinger JJ, Robertson LW, Rizk Z, Jha PK, et al. Hazard identification and risk assessment of microplastic particles in seafood. Rev Environ Health. 2021;36(1):125-42. doi:10.1515/reveh-2020-0087.
Wagner M, Lambert S. Freshwater microplastics: emerging environmental contaminants? In: Freshwater microplastics. Cham: Springer; 2018. p.1-13.
Westerhoff P, Prapaipong P, Shock E, Hristovski K. Occurrence and human health risk assessment of chemicals leaching from plastic packaging. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2015;68:103-11. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2015.03.003.
Microplastics in drinking-water. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019.
Wright SL, Kelly FJ. Plastic and human health: A micro issue? WIREs Water. 2017;4(6):e1268. doi:10.1002/wat2.1268.
Wright SL, Kelly FJ. Plastic and human health: a review of potential hazards. Environ Int. 2017;107:106-14. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.07.035.
Wright SL, Kelly FJ. Plastic and human health: A review of potential hazards. Environ Pollut. 2017;220:483-93. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.063.
Yong CQY, Valiyaveettil S, Tang BL. Toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics in mammalian systems. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(5):1509. doi:10.3390/ijerph17051509.
Yuan C, Almuhtaram H, McKie MJ, Andrews RC. Assessment of microplastic sampling and extraction methods for drinking waters. Chemosphere. 2022;286:131881. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131881.
Zuri G, Karanasiou A, Lacorte S. Microplastics: Human exposure assessment through air, water, and food. Environ Int. 2023;179:108150. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2023.108150.
轴 Microplastics in the human environment: Discovery, identification and toxicity. Environ Res. 2023;216:114649. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2023.114649.
Chatterjee S, Sharma S. Microplastics in our oceans and marine health. Field Actions Sci Rep. 2019;19:54-61.

How to cite this article

APA

MLA

Chicago

Verla Evelyn Ngozi, Njoku Thony R.F, Martin C. Ekeh, Verla Andrew Wirnkor, Uche Cosmas Chinedu, Morah Arthur C., Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe, Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu, Anyanwu Jonathan, and Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka. “Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Environmental Chemistry 11, no. 2 (2025): 20-35.

Vancouver

BibTeX

@article{NgoziVE2025,
author = {Verla Evelyn Ngozi and Njoku Thony R.F and Martin C. Ekeh and Verla Andrew Wirnkor and Uche Cosmas Chinedu and Morah Arthur C. and Uyo Chijioke Ndukwe and Ugwulor Louis Ukachukwu and Anyanwu Jonathan and Njoku-Obi Treasure Njideka},
title = {Unraveling the Health Risks of Microplastics in School Children Water Bottles: A Systematic Review},
journal = {International Journal of Environmental Chemistry},
year = {2025},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
pages = {20--35},
issn = {2456-5245},
url = {https://journalspub.com/publication/ijec/article=23157}
}

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