One of the biggest problems with membrane-based separation procedures is membrane fouling. As particles, organic matter, microbes, and other materials build up on the membrane’s surface or inside its pores, the effectiveness of membranes – such as those used in reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and microfiltration – declines over time. The effectiveness and longevity of the membrane are eventually lowered because of this fouling, which causes a drop in flux and a rise in transmembrane pressure (TMP). Cake formation (concentration polarization), membrane pore blocking, organic fouling, inorganic fouling (scaling), biofouling, colloidal fouling, chemical fouling, fouling, due to an imbalance in hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, and fouling resulting from an imbalance in hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity are some of the mechanisms of membrane fouling. Numerous techniques have been used to address fouling problems, such as pre-treating the feed water, cleaning the membrane surface chemically and physically, altering the membrane’s characteristics, and optimizing operational parameters like temperature, transmembrane pressure, and crossflow velocity. The outcomes of these tactics have been encouraging. Many membrane modules have been developed to solve these issues, but their ability to enhance the membrane surface is severely limited. Dynamic Shear Enhanced Membrane Filtration Pilots (DSEMFPs) are the result of these difficulties. DSEMFPs’ special shear-controlling capabilities efficiently lessen fouling and contribute to the maintenance of acceptable flux levels. Additionally, they have an edge over other fouling mitigation strategies due to their integrated self-cleaning feature. To improve comprehension and eventually streamline and simplify the use of membrane-based separation processes at bigger scales, a thorough examination of each of these fouling extenuation techniques is necessary. To determine the best strategies for reducing fouling, a thorough analysis of the different fouling control techniques is essential.

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1. Chauhan D, Nagar P, Pandey K, Pandey H. Simulations of novel mixed-patterned membrane surfaces: Enhanced hydrodynamics and concentration polarization to mitigate fouling in water treatment. J Water Process Eng. 2024;62:105371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105371.
2. Al-Amshawee SKA, Yunus MYBM. Impact of membrane spacers on concentration polarization, flow profile, and fouling at ion exchange membranes of electrodialysis desalination: Diagonal net spacer vs. ladder-type configuration. Chem Eng Res Des. 2023;191:197-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.01.012.
3. Tran HDM, Sano H, Boivin S, Ohkuma N, Terashima M, Fujioka T. Sodium hypochlorite-assisted osmotic backwashing for mitigating forward osmosis membrane fouling during pre-concentrating wastewater. Environ Technol Innov. 2023;32:103402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2023.103402.
4. Xia Q, Liu Y, Zhong X, Chen G, Li L, Wang Z, et al. Interaction mechanisms between fouling and chemical cleaning on the ageing behavior of ion-exchange membranes during electrodialysis treatment of flue gas desulfurization wastewater. Water Res. 2025;271(1):122897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122897.
5. Olubukola A, Gautam RK, Kamilya T, Muthukumaran S, Navaratna D. Development of a dynamic model for effective mitigation of membrane fouling through biogas sparging in submerged anaerobic membrane bioreactors (SAnMBRs). J Environ Manage. 2022;323(1):116151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116151.
6. Qaisrani TM, Samhaber WM. Impact of gas bubbling and backflushing on fouling control and membrane cleaning. Desalination. 2011;266(1-3):154-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.08.019.
7. Niknafs N, Jalali A. Performance analysis of cross-flow forward osmosis membrane modules with mesh feed spacer using three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics simulations. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif. 2021;168:108583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2021.108583.
8. Sarkar D, Chakraborty D, Naskar M, Bhattacharjee C. Characterization and modeling of radial flow membrane (RFM) module in ultrafiltration. Desalination. 2014;354:76–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.09.020.
9. Sarkar D, Datta D, Sen D, Bhattacharjee C. Simulation of continuous stirred rotating disk-membrane module: An approach based on surface renewal theory. Chem Eng Sci. 2011;66:2554–2567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2011.02.056.
10. Rock G, Titley P, McCombie N. Plasma collection using an automated membrane device. Transfusion. 1986;26:269–75.
11. Torras C, Pallares J, Garcia-Valls R, Jaffrin MY. Numerical simulation of the flow in a rotating disk filtration module. Desalination. 2009;235(1-3):122-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.02.006.
12. Rana K, Maitra T, Saha I, Saha A, Gupta S, Sarkar D. Modeling, simulation, and characterization of spinning basket membrane module in recovery of proteins from synthetic wastewater. J Water Process Eng. 2021;42:102135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102135.
13. Naskar M, Rana K, Chatterjee D, Dhara T, Sultana R, Sarkar D. Design, performance characterization and hydrodynamic modelling of intermeshed spinning basket membrane (ISBM) module. Chem Eng Sci. 2019;206:446–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2019.05.049.
14. Chen Y, Zhang R, Wu G, Li J, Ren Y, Duan X. Thermodynamic mechanism insights into the dynamic evolution of nanofiltration membrane fouling: Effect of calcium ion on organic fouling. Desalination. 2023;568:117036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.117036.
15. Meng J, Shi L, Wang S, Hu Z, Terada A, Zhan X. Membrane fouling during nutrient recovery from digestate using electrodialysis: Impacts of the molecular size of dissolved organic matter. J Membr Sci. 2023;685:121974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121974.
16. Ricceri F, Blankert B, Ranieri L, Picioreanu C, Ghaffour N, Vrouwenvelder JS, et al. Understanding the evolution of organic fouling in membrane distillation through driving force and resistance analysis. J Membr Sci. 2023;686:121993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121993.
17. Wen T, Huang Q, Meng L, Fang T, Lao H, Li M, et al. Dynamic evolution of reverse osmosis membrane fouling in sugar mill condensate purification: Quantifying the contribution of organic, inorganic, and biological fouling. J Water Process Eng. 2024;68:106428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.106428.
18. Tian J, Bu P, Gao S, Geng M. New insights into the influence of ultrafiltration pretreatment on reverse osmosis membrane fouling during urban sewage reclamation: Interaction between extracellular polymeric substances and inorganic foulants. J Environ Chem Eng. 2024;12(6):114368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.114368.
19. Fang H, Zhang H, Teng J, Lu M. Molecular mechanism of inorganic colloids fouling in forward osmosis membrane: Role of organic matter. J Membr Sci. 2024;692:122280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.122280.
20. Zhang D, Zhang G, Li W, Ma L, Wang F, Li T, et al. Biofouling behavior of PVDF ultrafiltration membrane incorporating crayfish shell biochar in the presence of inorganic cations and organic matters: Characteristics and mechanisms. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2025;707:135927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.135927.
21. Chen R, Xu D, Zhao Q, Jia B, Du Y, Wang Z, et al. Elucidating the formation pattern and mechanism of biofouling layer regulated by pre-deposition of powdered activated carbon in gravity-driven membrane systems. Sep Purif Technol. 2025;359(2):130447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.130447.
22. Enfrin M, Lee J, Fane AG, Dumée LF. Mitigation of membrane particulate fouling by nano/microplastics via physical cleaning strategies. Sci Total Environ. 2021;788:147689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147689.
23. Kim Y, Lee S, Shon HK, Hong S. Organic fouling mechanisms in forward osmosis membrane process under elevated feed and draw solution temperatures. Desalination. 2015;355:169–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.041.
24. Alkhatib A, Ayari MA, Hawari AH. Fouling mitigation strategies for different foulants in membrane distillation. Chem Eng Process. 2021;167:108517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2021.108517.
25. Fernandes S, Gomes IB, Simoes LC, Simoes M. Overview on the hydrodynamic conditions found in industrial systems and its impact in (bio)fouling formation. Chem Eng J. 2021;418:129348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.129348.
26. Li N, Yang Q, Yao E, Zhang N. Synergism between particulate and microbial fouling on a heat transfer surface using treated sewage water. Appl Therm Eng. 2019;150:791-802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.12.157.
27. Espina VS, Jaffrin MY, Frappart M, Ding LH. Separation of casein micelles from whey proteins by high shear microfiltration of skim milk using rotating ceramic membranes and organic membranes in a rotating disk module. J Membr Sci. 2008;325:872–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2008.09.013.
28. Ding LH, Jaffrin MY, Mellal M, He G. Investigation of performances of a multishaft disk (MSD) system with overlapping ceramic membranes in microfiltration of mineral suspensions. J Membr Sci. 2006;276:232–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2005.09.051.
29. Sarkar A, Moulik S, Sarkar D, Roy A, Bhattacharjee C. Performance characterization and CFD analysis of a novel shear enhanced membrane module in ultrafiltration of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). Desalination. 2012;292:53–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.02.009.
30. Costa FCR, Moreira VR, Guimarães RN, Moser PB, Santos LVS, de Paula EC, et al. Pre-oxidation and coagulation-flocculation as a pretreatment to UF-RO applied for surface water treatment and arsenic removal. Desalination. 2024;586:117855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117855.
31. Zhou X, Wang X, Yan Y, Luo Z, Zhang T, Ye M. Activated carbon aerogel evaporator for simultaneous salt-rejection and inhibition of phenol from entering condensed freshwater during solar-driven seawater desalination. Chem Eng J. 2024;502:158020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.158020.
32. Zhang J, Yang X, Zhang N, Tao Z, Han L, Wei B, et al. Polyamide membrane based on hydrophilic intermediate layer for simultaneous wetting and fouling resistance in membrane distillation. J Membr Sci. 2025;717:123596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123596.
33. Onuk E, Gungormus E, Cihanoğlu A, Altinkaya SA. Development of a dopamine-based surface modification technique to enhance protein fouling resistance in commercial ultrafiltration membranes. J Membr Sci. 2025;717:123554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123554.
34. Xu X, Peng B, Wang Y, Dong Y, Wang H, Chen W, et al. Fabrication of POSS-centered polyester network as high anti-chlorine and anti-fouling separation layer of membrane via successive Photo-ATRP and interfacial polymerization for molecular separation. J Membr Sci. 2025;715:123432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123432.
35. Mahato P, Arshad F, Palmisano G, Zou L. Immobilized enzymatic membrane surfaces for biocatalytic organics removal and fouling resistance. Chemosphere. 2024;358:142145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142145.
36. Zhang W, Liang W, Jin J, Meng S, He Z, Ali M, et al. Filtration performance of biofilm membrane bioreactor: Fouling control by threshold flux operation. Chemosphere. 2024;362:142458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142458.
37. Wen S, Xu Y, Fan L, Peng B, Zhang J, Zhang Q, et al. Hydrophilic coating of membrane by UV-induced radical and cationic curing of photosensitive resins: Lower shrinkage, smoother surface and better anti-fouling performance. Prog Org Coat. 2024;195:108666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2024.108666.
38. Shan H, Liu J, Li X, Li Y, Tezel FH, Li B, et al. Nanocoated amphiphobic membrane for flux enhancement and comprehensive anti-fouling performance in direct contact membrane distillation. J Membr Sci. 2018;567:166-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.09.038.
39. Yang L, Zhao J, Xu D, Luo X, Han Y, Tang X, et al. Rational design of a hydrophilic nanoarray-structured electro-Fenton membrane for antibiotics removal and fouling mitigation: An intensified catalysis process in an oxygen vacancy‐mediated cathodic microreactor. J Hazard Mater. 2024;470:134138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134138.
40. Li M, Wen Q, Chen Z, Tang Y, Yang B. Comparison of ozonation and UV based oxidation as pre-treatment process for ultrafiltration in wastewater reuse: Simultaneous water risks reduction and membrane fouling mitigation. Chemosphere. 2020;244:125449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125449.
41. Hu YS, Ke SC, Huang YX. Simultaneous fouling and scaling-resistant membrane based on glutamic acid grafting for robust membrane distillation. Desalination. 2024;587:117948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117948.

One of the biggest problems with membrane-based separation procedures is membrane fouling. As particles, organic matter, microbes, and other materials build up on the membrane’s surface or inside its pores, the effectiveness of membranes – such as those used in reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and microfiltration – declines over time. The effectiveness and longevity of the membrane are eventually lowered because of this fouling, which causes a drop in flux and a rise in transmembrane pressure (TMP). Cake formation (concentration polarization), membrane pore blocking, organic fouling, inorganic fouling (scaling), biofouling, colloidal fouling, chemical fouling, fouling, due to an imbalance in hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, and fouling resulting from an imbalance in hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity are some of the mechanisms of membrane fouling. Numerous techniques have been used to address fouling problems, such as pre-treating the feed water, cleaning the membrane surface chemically and physically, altering the membrane’s characteristics, and optimizing operational parameters like temperature, transmembrane pressure, and crossflow velocity. The outcomes of these tactics have been encouraging. Many membrane modules have been developed to solve these issues, but their ability to enhance the membrane surface is severely limited. Dynamic Shear Enhanced Membrane Filtration Pilots (DSEMFPs) are the result of these difficulties. DSEMFPs’ special shear-controlling capabilities efficiently lessen fouling and contribute to the maintenance of acceptable flux levels. Additionally, they have an edge over other fouling mitigation strategies due to their integrated self-cleaning feature. To improve comprehension and eventually streamline and simplify the use of membrane-based separation processes at bigger scales, a thorough examination of each of these fouling extenuation techniques is necessary. To determine the best strategies for reducing fouling, a thorough analysis of the different fouling control techniques is essential.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Chauhan D, Nagar P, Pandey K, Pandey H. Simulations of novel mixed-patterned membrane surfaces: Enhanced hydrodynamics and concentration polarization to mitigate fouling in water treatment. J Water Process Eng. 2024;62:105371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105371.
2. Al-Amshawee SKA, Yunus MYBM. Impact of membrane spacers on concentration polarization, flow profile, and fouling at ion exchange membranes of electrodialysis desalination: Diagonal net spacer vs. ladder-type configuration. Chem Eng Res Des. 2023;191:197-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.01.012.
3. Tran HDM, Sano H, Boivin S, Ohkuma N, Terashima M, Fujioka T. Sodium hypochlorite-assisted osmotic backwashing for mitigating forward osmosis membrane fouling during pre-concentrating wastewater. Environ Technol Innov. 2023;32:103402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2023.103402.
4. Xia Q, Liu Y, Zhong X, Chen G, Li L, Wang Z, et al. Interaction mechanisms between fouling and chemical cleaning on the ageing behavior of ion-exchange membranes during electrodialysis treatment of flue gas desulfurization wastewater. Water Res. 2025;271(1):122897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122897.
5. Olubukola A, Gautam RK, Kamilya T, Muthukumaran S, Navaratna D. Development of a dynamic model for effective mitigation of membrane fouling through biogas sparging in submerged anaerobic membrane bioreactors (SAnMBRs). J Environ Manage. 2022;323(1):116151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116151.
6. Qaisrani TM, Samhaber WM. Impact of gas bubbling and backflushing on fouling control and membrane cleaning. Desalination. 2011;266(1-3):154-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.08.019.
7. Niknafs N, Jalali A. Performance analysis of cross-flow forward osmosis membrane modules with mesh feed spacer using three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics simulations. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif. 2021;168:108583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2021.108583.
8. Sarkar D, Chakraborty D, Naskar M, Bhattacharjee C. Characterization and modeling of radial flow membrane (RFM) module in ultrafiltration. Desalination. 2014;354:76–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.09.020.
9. Sarkar D, Datta D, Sen D, Bhattacharjee C. Simulation of continuous stirred rotating disk-membrane module: An approach based on surface renewal theory. Chem Eng Sci. 2011;66:2554–2567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2011.02.056.
10. Rock G, Titley P, McCombie N. Plasma collection using an automated membrane device. Transfusion. 1986;26:269–75.
11. Torras C, Pallares J, Garcia-Valls R, Jaffrin MY. Numerical simulation of the flow in a rotating disk filtration module. Desalination. 2009;235(1-3):122-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.02.006.
12. Rana K, Maitra T, Saha I, Saha A, Gupta S, Sarkar D. Modeling, simulation, and characterization of spinning basket membrane module in recovery of proteins from synthetic wastewater. J Water Process Eng. 2021;42:102135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102135.
13. Naskar M, Rana K, Chatterjee D, Dhara T, Sultana R, Sarkar D. Design, performance characterization and hydrodynamic modelling of intermeshed spinning basket membrane (ISBM) module. Chem Eng Sci. 2019;206:446–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2019.05.049.
14. Chen Y, Zhang R, Wu G, Li J, Ren Y, Duan X. Thermodynamic mechanism insights into the dynamic evolution of nanofiltration membrane fouling: Effect of calcium ion on organic fouling. Desalination. 2023;568:117036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.117036.
15. Meng J, Shi L, Wang S, Hu Z, Terada A, Zhan X. Membrane fouling during nutrient recovery from digestate using electrodialysis: Impacts of the molecular size of dissolved organic matter. J Membr Sci. 2023;685:121974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121974.
16. Ricceri F, Blankert B, Ranieri L, Picioreanu C, Ghaffour N, Vrouwenvelder JS, et al. Understanding the evolution of organic fouling in membrane distillation through driving force and resistance analysis. J Membr Sci. 2023;686:121993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121993.
17. Wen T, Huang Q, Meng L, Fang T, Lao H, Li M, et al. Dynamic evolution of reverse osmosis membrane fouling in sugar mill condensate purification: Quantifying the contribution of organic, inorganic, and biological fouling. J Water Process Eng. 2024;68:106428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.106428.
18. Tian J, Bu P, Gao S, Geng M. New insights into the influence of ultrafiltration pretreatment on reverse osmosis membrane fouling during urban sewage reclamation: Interaction between extracellular polymeric substances and inorganic foulants. J Environ Chem Eng. 2024;12(6):114368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.114368.
19. Fang H, Zhang H, Teng J, Lu M. Molecular mechanism of inorganic colloids fouling in forward osmosis membrane: Role of organic matter. J Membr Sci. 2024;692:122280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.122280.
20. Zhang D, Zhang G, Li W, Ma L, Wang F, Li T, et al. Biofouling behavior of PVDF ultrafiltration membrane incorporating crayfish shell biochar in the presence of inorganic cations and organic matters: Characteristics and mechanisms. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2025;707:135927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.135927.
21. Chen R, Xu D, Zhao Q, Jia B, Du Y, Wang Z, et al. Elucidating the formation pattern and mechanism of biofouling layer regulated by pre-deposition of powdered activated carbon in gravity-driven membrane systems. Sep Purif Technol. 2025;359(2):130447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.130447.
22. Enfrin M, Lee J, Fane AG, Dumée LF. Mitigation of membrane particulate fouling by nano/microplastics via physical cleaning strategies. Sci Total Environ. 2021;788:147689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147689.
23. Kim Y, Lee S, Shon HK, Hong S. Organic fouling mechanisms in forward osmosis membrane process under elevated feed and draw solution temperatures. Desalination. 2015;355:169–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.041.
24. Alkhatib A, Ayari MA, Hawari AH. Fouling mitigation strategies for different foulants in membrane distillation. Chem Eng Process. 2021;167:108517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2021.108517.
25. Fernandes S, Gomes IB, Simoes LC, Simoes M. Overview on the hydrodynamic conditions found in industrial systems and its impact in (bio)fouling formation. Chem Eng J. 2021;418:129348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.129348.
26. Li N, Yang Q, Yao E, Zhang N. Synergism between particulate and microbial fouling on a heat transfer surface using treated sewage water. Appl Therm Eng. 2019;150:791-802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.12.157.
27. Espina VS, Jaffrin MY, Frappart M, Ding LH. Separation of casein micelles from whey proteins by high shear microfiltration of skim milk using rotating ceramic membranes and organic membranes in a rotating disk module. J Membr Sci. 2008;325:872–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2008.09.013.
28. Ding LH, Jaffrin MY, Mellal M, He G. Investigation of performances of a multishaft disk (MSD) system with overlapping ceramic membranes in microfiltration of mineral suspensions. J Membr Sci. 2006;276:232–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2005.09.051.
29. Sarkar A, Moulik S, Sarkar D, Roy A, Bhattacharjee C. Performance characterization and CFD analysis of a novel shear enhanced membrane module in ultrafiltration of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). Desalination. 2012;292:53–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.02.009.
30. Costa FCR, Moreira VR, Guimarães RN, Moser PB, Santos LVS, de Paula EC, et al. Pre-oxidation and coagulation-flocculation as a pretreatment to UF-RO applied for surface water treatment and arsenic removal. Desalination. 2024;586:117855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117855.
31. Zhou X, Wang X, Yan Y, Luo Z, Zhang T, Ye M. Activated carbon aerogel evaporator for simultaneous salt-rejection and inhibition of phenol from entering condensed freshwater during solar-driven seawater desalination. Chem Eng J. 2024;502:158020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.158020.
32. Zhang J, Yang X, Zhang N, Tao Z, Han L, Wei B, et al. Polyamide membrane based on hydrophilic intermediate layer for simultaneous wetting and fouling resistance in membrane distillation. J Membr Sci. 2025;717:123596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123596.
33. Onuk E, Gungormus E, Cihanoğlu A, Altinkaya SA. Development of a dopamine-based surface modification technique to enhance protein fouling resistance in commercial ultrafiltration membranes. J Membr Sci. 2025;717:123554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123554.
34. Xu X, Peng B, Wang Y, Dong Y, Wang H, Chen W, et al. Fabrication of POSS-centered polyester network as high anti-chlorine and anti-fouling separation layer of membrane via successive Photo-ATRP and interfacial polymerization for molecular separation. J Membr Sci. 2025;715:123432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123432.
35. Mahato P, Arshad F, Palmisano G, Zou L. Immobilized enzymatic membrane surfaces for biocatalytic organics removal and fouling resistance. Chemosphere. 2024;358:142145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142145.
36. Zhang W, Liang W, Jin J, Meng S, He Z, Ali M, et al. Filtration performance of biofilm membrane bioreactor: Fouling control by threshold flux operation. Chemosphere. 2024;362:142458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142458.
37. Wen S, Xu Y, Fan L, Peng B, Zhang J, Zhang Q, et al. Hydrophilic coating of membrane by UV-induced radical and cationic curing of photosensitive resins: Lower shrinkage, smoother surface and better anti-fouling performance. Prog Org Coat. 2024;195:108666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2024.108666.
38. Shan H, Liu J, Li X, Li Y, Tezel FH, Li B, et al. Nanocoated amphiphobic membrane for flux enhancement and comprehensive anti-fouling performance in direct contact membrane distillation. J Membr Sci. 2018;567:166-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.09.038.
39. Yang L, Zhao J, Xu D, Luo X, Han Y, Tang X, et al. Rational design of a hydrophilic nanoarray-structured electro-Fenton membrane for antibiotics removal and fouling mitigation: An intensified catalysis process in an oxygen vacancy‐mediated cathodic microreactor. J Hazard Mater. 2024;470:134138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134138.
40. Li M, Wen Q, Chen Z, Tang Y, Yang B. Comparison of ozonation and UV based oxidation as pre-treatment process for ultrafiltration in wastewater reuse: Simultaneous water risks reduction and membrane fouling mitigation. Chemosphere. 2020;244:125449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125449.
41. Hu YS, Ke SC, Huang YX. Simultaneous fouling and scaling-resistant membrane based on glutamic acid grafting for robust membrane distillation. Desalination. 2024;587:117948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117948.