Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach

Hiren M. Bhajiwala; Virendra Kumar Gupta

Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach

Hiren M. Bhajiwala, Virendra Kumar Gupta | International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering | Vol 11, Issue 2 | pp. 1-17 | ISSN: 2455-8745

Abstract

3D printing is technology that enables the complex structure, which is difficult in conventional technique. However, relatively slow manufacturing process and using of limited polymeric material leads to attention of scientist towards newer cost-effective material and technology. In this study, we overcome this issue by synthesizing reactor-made polypropylene (mPP) using Dimethylsilylene-(cyclopentadienyl) (fluorenyl)-zirconium-dichloride metallocene catalyst. The polymerization process was systematically optimized by varying Al/Zr molar ratios, catalyst concentrations, and temperatures to achieve tailored properties suitable for 3D-printing. The synthesized polymer was characterized through different analytical tools including NMR, DSC, WAXD, GPC, and TREF, revealed the influence of polymerization conditions on molecular weight distribution, microstructure, and crystallization behavior. The resulting PP exhibited a balanced composition of syndiotactic, isotactic, and atactic structures including dual melting temperatures and lower crystalline. The synthesized PP is used for the preparation of 1.7 mm filament for FDM. The filament exhibited highly transparent and flexible in nature attributed to balanced crystallinity and smaller spherulite structure. Furthermore, the drawn filament was printed on FDM, which exhibited good printability, excellent adhesion to the printer bed with minimal warping, this is due to reduced shrinkage and internal stresses, more uniform cooling due to amorphous nature, improved layer adhesion due to interlayer diffusion and bonding and smaller spherulites leads to improving mechanical homogeneity. This research demonstrates reactor-made polypropylene, with tailored properties, presents a viable solution for overcoming the challenges associated with 3D-printing semi-crystalline polymers, paving the way for broader applications in additive manufacturing.

Keywords

3D Printing, filament, syndiotactic polypropylene, isotactic polypropylene, Metallocene catalyst, polymerization

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References

Sajan S, Selvaraj DP. Additive manufacturing applications in automobile components. Mater Today Proc. 2021;47(15):5493–8.
Oladele IO, Omotosho TF, Adediran AA. Polymer matrix composites and their application in engineering. Int J Polym Sci. 2020;2020:8834518.12.p.
Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G, Nguyen KTQ, Hui D. Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications, and challenges. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143:172–96.
Balletti C, Ballarin M, Guerra F. 3D printing for cultural heritage: A survey. J Cult Herit. 2017;26:172–82.
Prabhakar MM, Saravanan AK, Lenin AH, Leno IJ, Mayandi K, Ramalingam PS. Optimization of process parameters in FDM 3D printing using hybrid techniques. Mater Today Proc. 2021;45(7):6108–14.
Wong KV, Hernandez A. A review of additive manufacturing. ISRN Mech Eng. 2012;2012:208760.
Gibson I, Rosen D, Stucker B, Khorasani M. Introduction and basic principles. In: Additive Manufacturing Technologies. New York: Springer; p. 1–21.
Kruth JP, Mercelis P, Van Vaerenbergh J, Froyen L, Rombouts M. Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid Prototyp J. 2005;11:26–36.
Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G, Nguyen KT, Hui D. Additive manufacturing: A review. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143:172–96.
Muthuram N, Madhav PS, Vasan DK, Mohan ME, Prajeeth G. Investigation of mechanical behaviour of polymer composite materials. Mater Today Proc. 2022;68(6):1906–20.
Vidakis N, Petousis M, Vaxevanidis N, Kechagias J. A study on the mechanical properties of FDM printed parts. Mathematics. 2020;8(10):1758.
Huang J, Qin Q, Wang J. Process modeling and optimization in additive manufacturing. Processes. 2020;8(9):1138.
Lakkala P, Munnangi SR, Bandari S, Repka M. Hot-melt extrusion in drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm X. 2023;5:100159.
Khorasani M, MacDonald E, Downing D, Ghasemi A, Leary M, Dash J, et al. Advances in additive manufacturing materials and technologies. Addit Manuf. 2024;91:104331.
Sefene EM. Review of additive manufacturing techniques and process parameters. J Manuf Syst. 2022;63:250–74.
Spears TG, Gold SA. In-process sensing in additive manufacturing. Integr Mater Manuf Innov. 2016;5(2).
Han W, Kong L, Xu M. Review of extreme manufacturing technologies. Int J Extrem Manuf. 2022;4:042002.
Solomon IJ, Sevvel P, Gunasekaran J. Optimization of build orientation in additive manufacturing. Mater Today Proc. 2021;37(2):509–14.
Patel R, Desai C, Kushwah S, Mangrola MH. Mechanical property enhancement of printed composites. Mater Today Proc. 2022;60(3):2162–6.
Wickramasinghe S, Do T, Tran P. Review of biodegradable polymers in 3D printing. Polymers. 2020;12(7):1529.
Chaudhary R, Fabbri P, Leoni E, Mazzanti F, Akbari R, Antonini C. Functional materials in additive manufacturing. Prog Addit Manuf. 2023;8:331–51.
Nandy J, Sarangi H, Sahoo S. Laser-based additive manufacturing of metallic materials. Lasers Manuf Mater Process. 2019;6:280–316.
Körner C. Additive manufacturing of metallic components by selective electron beam melting. Int Mater Rev. 2016;61(5):361–77.
Zhang LC, Liu Y, Li S, Hao Y. Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys. Adv Eng Mater. 2018;20(5):1700842.
Ligon SC, Liska R, Stampfl J, Gurr M, Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D printing and customized additive manufacturing. Chem Rev. 2017;117:10212–70.
Hutmacher DW, Ramakrishna S. Biomaterials. 2004;25:3019–27.
Rodríguez-Panes A, Claver J, Camacho AM. The influence of manufacturing parameters on the mechanical behavior of PLA and ABS pieces manufactured by FDM: A comparative analysis. Materials (Basel). 2018;11:1333.
Yadavalli K, Vamsi EJM. A study of processing parameters in FDM rapid prototyping process. J Mater Process Technol. 2013;213(6):947–54.
Nikzad M, Sbarski I, Groth A. A study on the mechanical properties of FDM printed parts using ABS and PC. Tsinghua Sci Technol. 2009;14(1):29–37.
Backes EH, Harb SV, Beatrice CAG, Shimomura KMB, Passador FR, Costa LC, et al. Mechanical performance of 3D printed PLA and carbon fiber–PLA composites. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2022;110(6):1479–90.
Murab S, Herold S, Hawk T, Snyder A, Espinal E, Whitlock P. Advances in materials for additive manufacturing: From lab to market. J Mater Chem B. 2023;11:7250–79.
Camargo JR, Crapnell RD, Bernalte E, Cunliffe AJ, Redfern J, Janegitz BC, et al. Sustainable conductive materials for 3D printing of electrochemical sensors. Appl Mater Today. 2024;39:102285.
García E, Núñez PJ, Caminero MA, Chacón JM, Kamarthi S. Additive manufacturing in aerospace: Manufacturing challenges and opportunities. Compos Part B Eng. 2022;235:109766.
Knapčíková L, Behúnová A, Kaščak J, Husár J. 3D printing in automotive and biomedical industries. In: 6th EAI Int Conf Manag Manuf Syst; 2022. p. 131–40.
Liu Y, Zhu L, Zhou L, Li Y. Optimization of build orientation for improving mechanical properties in FDM. Rapid Prototyp J. 2019;25(6):1127–34.
Rigona D, Floriana F, Ricotta M, Ardengo G, Trivillin F, Meneghetti G. Structural integrity of 3D printed parts subjected to cyclic loading. Procedia Struct Integr. 2021;34:199–204.
Sam-Daliri O, Ghabezi P, Steinbach J, Flanagan T, Finnegan W, Mitchell S, et al. Multi-material additive manufacturing: Recent advances and future directions. Compos Sci Technol. 2023;241:110125.
Liu Y, Zeng Q, He Z. Fatigue behavior of 3D printed composites: Experimental and numerical approaches. Compos Part B Eng. 2020;186:107759.
Ghabezi P, Sam-Daliri O, Flanagan T, Walls M, Harrison NM. Circular economy in additive manufacturing: A review. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2024;206:107667.
Ferreira I, Vale D, Machado M, Lino J. Application of additive manufacturing to functional components in mechanical systems. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part L J Mater Des Appl. 2019;233:1866–78.
Jawaid M, Abdul Khalil HPS. A review on polymer composites reinforced with natural fibers. Polymers (Basel). 2022;14:3698.
Ramesh S, Palanikumar M, Reddy KH. Natural fiber composites for sustainable applications: A review. Sustainability. 2024;16:1223.
Sultan R, Skrifvars M, Khalili P. Development of biocomposites for structural and sustainable applications. Heliyon. 2024;10:e26617.
Ghoshal S. Applications and challenges of fiber-reinforced composites. Fibers. 2017;5(4):40.
Iervolino F, Bonessa A, Foti G, Levi M, Suriano R. Advanced materials and processing for additive manufacturing. Adv Mater Eng. 2022;24(12):2200947.
Wang Z, Yang Q, Zheng X, Zhang S, He P, Han R, et al. Green composites for 3D printing applications. Polymers (Basel). 2024;16:772.
Shmueli Y, Lin YC, Zuo X, Guo Y, Lee S, Freychet G, et al. Reinforcement of polymer matrices with advanced fibers. Compos Sci Technol. 2020;196:108227.
Nasouri A, Bahramian S. Thermal degradation behavior of polymer nanocomposites. Polym Degrad Stab. 2019;168:138–49.
Aktitiz İ, Aydın K, Darıcık F, Topcu A. Mechanical and morphological evaluation of 3D printed composites. Adv Mater Eng. 2022;43(11):7826–35.
Innes JR, Shriky B, Nocita D, Thompson G, Coates P, Whiteside B, et al. Polymer composite design for functional applications. Polymer. 2023;273:125839.
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Wang X, Wang Z, Xiang S, Peng M, Li G, Huang Y. High-performance polymers for additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf. 2024;86:104188.
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Yin Z, Yan W, Xu X. A biodegradable composite material and its preparation method. CN103937278.
Dong J, Wang N, Niu H, Qin Y, Li C, Fu W, et al. Preparation of polylactic acid modified with natural fibers. CN103980401.
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Chae BH, Jung SW, Lee JY, Woo HY, Hong YJ. Biodegradable polyesters and their use in 3D printing. EP3018152A1.
Busico V, Cipullo R, Monaco G, Vacatello M, Segre AL. Mechanistic aspects of olefin polymerization. Macromolecules. 1997;30:6251.
Razavi A. Recent progress in polyolefins and polymerization catalysis. Adv Polym Sci. 2013;258:43–116.

How to cite this article

APA

Bhajiwala, H. M., & Gupta, V. K. (2025). Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach. International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering, 11(2), 1-17.

MLA

Bhajiwala, Hiren M., and Virendra Kumar Gupta. “Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach.” International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering, vol. 11, no. 2, 2025, pp. 1-17.

Chicago

Hiren M. Bhajiwala, and Virendra Kumar Gupta. “Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach.” International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering 11, no. 2 (2025): 1-17.

Vancouver

Bhajiwala HM, Gupta VK. Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach. International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering. 2025;11(2):1-17.

BibTeX

@article{BhajiwalaHM2025,
author = {Hiren M. Bhajiwala and Virendra Kumar Gupta},
title = {Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach},
journal = {International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering},
year = {2025},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
pages = {1--17},
issn = {2455-8745},
url = {https://journalspub.com/publication/ijpse/article=20186}
}

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Hiren M. Bhajiwala, Virendra Kumar Gupta | International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering | Vol 11, Issue 2 | pp. 1-17 | ISSN: 2455-8745

Abstract

Keywords

3D Printing, filament, syndiotactic polypropylene, isotactic polypropylene, Metallocene catalyst, polymerization

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

Subscribe Purchase this article Institutional / Login access

References

Sajan S, Selvaraj DP. Additive manufacturing applications in automobile components. Mater Today Proc. 2021;47(15):5493–8.
Oladele IO, Omotosho TF, Adediran AA. Polymer matrix composites and their application in engineering. Int J Polym Sci. 2020;2020:8834518.12.p.
Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G, Nguyen KTQ, Hui D. Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications, and challenges. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143:172–96.
Balletti C, Ballarin M, Guerra F. 3D printing for cultural heritage: A survey. J Cult Herit. 2017;26:172–82.
Prabhakar MM, Saravanan AK, Lenin AH, Leno IJ, Mayandi K, Ramalingam PS. Optimization of process parameters in FDM 3D printing using hybrid techniques. Mater Today Proc. 2021;45(7):6108–14.
Wong KV, Hernandez A. A review of additive manufacturing. ISRN Mech Eng. 2012;2012:208760.
Gibson I, Rosen D, Stucker B, Khorasani M. Introduction and basic principles. In: Additive Manufacturing Technologies. New York: Springer; p. 1–21.
Kruth JP, Mercelis P, Van Vaerenbergh J, Froyen L, Rombouts M. Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid Prototyp J. 2005;11:26–36.
Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G, Nguyen KT, Hui D. Additive manufacturing: A review. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143:172–96.
Muthuram N, Madhav PS, Vasan DK, Mohan ME, Prajeeth G. Investigation of mechanical behaviour of polymer composite materials. Mater Today Proc. 2022;68(6):1906–20.
Vidakis N, Petousis M, Vaxevanidis N, Kechagias J. A study on the mechanical properties of FDM printed parts. Mathematics. 2020;8(10):1758.
Huang J, Qin Q, Wang J. Process modeling and optimization in additive manufacturing. Processes. 2020;8(9):1138.
Lakkala P, Munnangi SR, Bandari S, Repka M. Hot-melt extrusion in drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm X. 2023;5:100159.
Khorasani M, MacDonald E, Downing D, Ghasemi A, Leary M, Dash J, et al. Advances in additive manufacturing materials and technologies. Addit Manuf. 2024;91:104331.
Sefene EM. Review of additive manufacturing techniques and process parameters. J Manuf Syst. 2022;63:250–74.
Spears TG, Gold SA. In-process sensing in additive manufacturing. Integr Mater Manuf Innov. 2016;5(2).
Han W, Kong L, Xu M. Review of extreme manufacturing technologies. Int J Extrem Manuf. 2022;4:042002.
Solomon IJ, Sevvel P, Gunasekaran J. Optimization of build orientation in additive manufacturing. Mater Today Proc. 2021;37(2):509–14.
Patel R, Desai C, Kushwah S, Mangrola MH. Mechanical property enhancement of printed composites. Mater Today Proc. 2022;60(3):2162–6.
Wickramasinghe S, Do T, Tran P. Review of biodegradable polymers in 3D printing. Polymers. 2020;12(7):1529.
Chaudhary R, Fabbri P, Leoni E, Mazzanti F, Akbari R, Antonini C. Functional materials in additive manufacturing. Prog Addit Manuf. 2023;8:331–51.
Nandy J, Sarangi H, Sahoo S. Laser-based additive manufacturing of metallic materials. Lasers Manuf Mater Process. 2019;6:280–316.
Körner C. Additive manufacturing of metallic components by selective electron beam melting. Int Mater Rev. 2016;61(5):361–77.
Zhang LC, Liu Y, Li S, Hao Y. Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys. Adv Eng Mater. 2018;20(5):1700842.
Ligon SC, Liska R, Stampfl J, Gurr M, Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D printing and customized additive manufacturing. Chem Rev. 2017;117:10212–70.
Hutmacher DW, Ramakrishna S. Biomaterials. 2004;25:3019–27.
Rodríguez-Panes A, Claver J, Camacho AM. The influence of manufacturing parameters on the mechanical behavior of PLA and ABS pieces manufactured by FDM: A comparative analysis. Materials (Basel). 2018;11:1333.
Yadavalli K, Vamsi EJM. A study of processing parameters in FDM rapid prototyping process. J Mater Process Technol. 2013;213(6):947–54.
Nikzad M, Sbarski I, Groth A. A study on the mechanical properties of FDM printed parts using ABS and PC. Tsinghua Sci Technol. 2009;14(1):29–37.
Backes EH, Harb SV, Beatrice CAG, Shimomura KMB, Passador FR, Costa LC, et al. Mechanical performance of 3D printed PLA and carbon fiber–PLA composites. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2022;110(6):1479–90.
Murab S, Herold S, Hawk T, Snyder A, Espinal E, Whitlock P. Advances in materials for additive manufacturing: From lab to market. J Mater Chem B. 2023;11:7250–79.
Camargo JR, Crapnell RD, Bernalte E, Cunliffe AJ, Redfern J, Janegitz BC, et al. Sustainable conductive materials for 3D printing of electrochemical sensors. Appl Mater Today. 2024;39:102285.
García E, Núñez PJ, Caminero MA, Chacón JM, Kamarthi S. Additive manufacturing in aerospace: Manufacturing challenges and opportunities. Compos Part B Eng. 2022;235:109766.
Knapčíková L, Behúnová A, Kaščak J, Husár J. 3D printing in automotive and biomedical industries. In: 6th EAI Int Conf Manag Manuf Syst; 2022. p. 131–40.
Liu Y, Zhu L, Zhou L, Li Y. Optimization of build orientation for improving mechanical properties in FDM. Rapid Prototyp J. 2019;25(6):1127–34.
Rigona D, Floriana F, Ricotta M, Ardengo G, Trivillin F, Meneghetti G. Structural integrity of 3D printed parts subjected to cyclic loading. Procedia Struct Integr. 2021;34:199–204.
Sam-Daliri O, Ghabezi P, Steinbach J, Flanagan T, Finnegan W, Mitchell S, et al. Multi-material additive manufacturing: Recent advances and future directions. Compos Sci Technol. 2023;241:110125.
Liu Y, Zeng Q, He Z. Fatigue behavior of 3D printed composites: Experimental and numerical approaches. Compos Part B Eng. 2020;186:107759.
Ghabezi P, Sam-Daliri O, Flanagan T, Walls M, Harrison NM. Circular economy in additive manufacturing: A review. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2024;206:107667.
Ferreira I, Vale D, Machado M, Lino J. Application of additive manufacturing to functional components in mechanical systems. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part L J Mater Des Appl. 2019;233:1866–78.
Jawaid M, Abdul Khalil HPS. A review on polymer composites reinforced with natural fibers. Polymers (Basel). 2022;14:3698.
Ramesh S, Palanikumar M, Reddy KH. Natural fiber composites for sustainable applications: A review. Sustainability. 2024;16:1223.
Sultan R, Skrifvars M, Khalili P. Development of biocomposites for structural and sustainable applications. Heliyon. 2024;10:e26617.
Ghoshal S. Applications and challenges of fiber-reinforced composites. Fibers. 2017;5(4):40.
Iervolino F, Bonessa A, Foti G, Levi M, Suriano R. Advanced materials and processing for additive manufacturing. Adv Mater Eng. 2022;24(12):2200947.
Wang Z, Yang Q, Zheng X, Zhang S, He P, Han R, et al. Green composites for 3D printing applications. Polymers (Basel). 2024;16:772.
Shmueli Y, Lin YC, Zuo X, Guo Y, Lee S, Freychet G, et al. Reinforcement of polymer matrices with advanced fibers. Compos Sci Technol. 2020;196:108227.
Nasouri A, Bahramian S. Thermal degradation behavior of polymer nanocomposites. Polym Degrad Stab. 2019;168:138–49.
Aktitiz İ, Aydın K, Darıcık F, Topcu A. Mechanical and morphological evaluation of 3D printed composites. Adv Mater Eng. 2022;43(11):7826–35.
Innes JR, Shriky B, Nocita D, Thompson G, Coates P, Whiteside B, et al. Polymer composite design for functional applications. Polymer. 2023;273:125839.
Liao W, Wang J, Pan M. Advances in the processing of biodegradable polymers. Adv Polym Technol. 2023;2023:9313467.
Wang X, Wang Z, Xiang S, Peng M, Li G, Huang Y. High-performance polymers for additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf. 2024;86:104188.
Spiegel G, Paulik C. Kinetic modeling in reactive polymer processing. Macromol React Eng. 2020;14:1900044.
Chen Y, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Zhou W. A method for preparing high-toughness polylactic acid composite material. CN103739954.
Yin Z, Yan W, Xu X. A biodegradable composite material and its preparation method. CN103937278.
Dong J, Wang N, Niu H, Qin Y, Li C, Fu W, et al. Preparation of polylactic acid modified with natural fibers. CN103980401.
Dong J, Wang N, Niu H, Qin Y, Li C, Fu W, et al. High-strength biodegradable plastic for 3D printing. CN103980608.
Liu Z, Ma L, Song H. Method for preparing starch-based fully biodegradable plastics. CN104031316.
Zheng H, Ai S, Zhang M. Environmentally friendly polymer-based composites. CN106674736.
Chae BH, Jung SW, Lee JY, Woo HY, Hong YJ. Biodegradable polyesters and their use in 3D printing. EP3018152A1.
Busico V, Cipullo R, Monaco G, Vacatello M, Segre AL. Mechanistic aspects of olefin polymerization. Macromolecules. 1997;30:6251.
Razavi A. Recent progress in polyolefins and polymerization catalysis. Adv Polym Sci. 2013;258:43–116.

How to cite this article

APA

Bhajiwala, H. M., & Gupta, V. K. (2025). Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach. International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering, 11(2), 1-17.

MLA

Chicago

Vancouver

Bhajiwala HM, Gupta VK. Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach. International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering. 2025;11(2):1-17.

BibTeX

@article{BhajiwalaHM2025,
author = {Hiren M. Bhajiwala and Virendra Kumar Gupta},
title = {Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach},
journal = {International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering},
year = {2025},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
pages = {1--17},
issn = {2455-8745},
url = {https://journalspub.com/publication/ijpse/article=20186}
}

Hiren M. Bhajiwala, Virendra Kumar Gupta | International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering | Vol 11, Issue 2 | pp. 1-17 | ISSN: 2455-8745

Abstract

Keywords

3D Printing, filament, syndiotactic polypropylene, isotactic polypropylene, Metallocene catalyst, polymerization

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

Subscribe Purchase this article Institutional / Login access

References

Sajan S, Selvaraj DP. Additive manufacturing applications in automobile components. Mater Today Proc. 2021;47(15):5493–8.
Oladele IO, Omotosho TF, Adediran AA. Polymer matrix composites and their application in engineering. Int J Polym Sci. 2020;2020:8834518.12.p.
Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G, Nguyen KTQ, Hui D. Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications, and challenges. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143:172–96.
Balletti C, Ballarin M, Guerra F. 3D printing for cultural heritage: A survey. J Cult Herit. 2017;26:172–82.
Prabhakar MM, Saravanan AK, Lenin AH, Leno IJ, Mayandi K, Ramalingam PS. Optimization of process parameters in FDM 3D printing using hybrid techniques. Mater Today Proc. 2021;45(7):6108–14.
Wong KV, Hernandez A. A review of additive manufacturing. ISRN Mech Eng. 2012;2012:208760.
Gibson I, Rosen D, Stucker B, Khorasani M. Introduction and basic principles. In: Additive Manufacturing Technologies. New York: Springer; p. 1–21.
Kruth JP, Mercelis P, Van Vaerenbergh J, Froyen L, Rombouts M. Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid Prototyp J. 2005;11:26–36.
Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G, Nguyen KT, Hui D. Additive manufacturing: A review. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143:172–96.
Muthuram N, Madhav PS, Vasan DK, Mohan ME, Prajeeth G. Investigation of mechanical behaviour of polymer composite materials. Mater Today Proc. 2022;68(6):1906–20.
Vidakis N, Petousis M, Vaxevanidis N, Kechagias J. A study on the mechanical properties of FDM printed parts. Mathematics. 2020;8(10):1758.
Huang J, Qin Q, Wang J. Process modeling and optimization in additive manufacturing. Processes. 2020;8(9):1138.
Lakkala P, Munnangi SR, Bandari S, Repka M. Hot-melt extrusion in drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm X. 2023;5:100159.
Khorasani M, MacDonald E, Downing D, Ghasemi A, Leary M, Dash J, et al. Advances in additive manufacturing materials and technologies. Addit Manuf. 2024;91:104331.
Sefene EM. Review of additive manufacturing techniques and process parameters. J Manuf Syst. 2022;63:250–74.
Spears TG, Gold SA. In-process sensing in additive manufacturing. Integr Mater Manuf Innov. 2016;5(2).
Han W, Kong L, Xu M. Review of extreme manufacturing technologies. Int J Extrem Manuf. 2022;4:042002.
Solomon IJ, Sevvel P, Gunasekaran J. Optimization of build orientation in additive manufacturing. Mater Today Proc. 2021;37(2):509–14.
Patel R, Desai C, Kushwah S, Mangrola MH. Mechanical property enhancement of printed composites. Mater Today Proc. 2022;60(3):2162–6.
Wickramasinghe S, Do T, Tran P. Review of biodegradable polymers in 3D printing. Polymers. 2020;12(7):1529.
Chaudhary R, Fabbri P, Leoni E, Mazzanti F, Akbari R, Antonini C. Functional materials in additive manufacturing. Prog Addit Manuf. 2023;8:331–51.
Nandy J, Sarangi H, Sahoo S. Laser-based additive manufacturing of metallic materials. Lasers Manuf Mater Process. 2019;6:280–316.
Körner C. Additive manufacturing of metallic components by selective electron beam melting. Int Mater Rev. 2016;61(5):361–77.
Zhang LC, Liu Y, Li S, Hao Y. Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys. Adv Eng Mater. 2018;20(5):1700842.
Ligon SC, Liska R, Stampfl J, Gurr M, Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D printing and customized additive manufacturing. Chem Rev. 2017;117:10212–70.
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How to cite this article

APA

Bhajiwala, H. M., & Gupta, V. K. (2025). Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach. International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering, 11(2), 1-17.

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Bhajiwala HM, Gupta VK. Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach. International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering. 2025;11(2):1-17.

BibTeX

@article{BhajiwalaHM2025,
author = {Hiren M. Bhajiwala and Virendra Kumar Gupta},
title = {Reactor-Made Polypropylene for 3D Printing: A Low-Crystallinity Approach},
journal = {International Journal of Polymer Science and Engineering},
year = {2025},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
pages = {1--17},
issn = {2455-8745},
url = {https://journalspub.com/publication/ijpse/article=20186}
}

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