AbstractThe Low-Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (LT-PEMFC) has gained prominence as a promising solution for clean and efficient energy generation, particularly in the automotive industry, where stringent emission norms and sustainability goals are driving innovation. LT-PEMFC systems offer several inherent advantages, including high energy conversion efficiency, low operational temperature, rapid start-up capability, and compatibility with hydrogen as a renewable fuel source. These characteristics make them attractive for commercial vehicle applications, where reliability and performance are critical. Despite these benefits, large-scale commercialization of LT-PEMFC technology remains challenging due to the complexity of system integration and cost considerations. The fuel cell stack must operate in conjunction with multiple Balance of Plant (BoP) components, such as air compressors, humidifiers, heat exchangers, and cooling circuits, which are essential for maintaining optimal operating conditions. Additionally, the selection of catalytic materials and membrane properties significantly influences electrochemical performance and durability. The interdependence of these subsystems often results in increased design complexity, higher manufacturing costs, and reliability concerns, limiting competitiveness against conventional internal combustion engines. To address these challenges, dynamic performance evaluation under realistic operating conditions is crucial. This study focuses on modeling and simulation of an LT-PEMFC system integrated with its BoP components using AVL CRUISE™ M, a widely adopted 1D simulation platform for automotive applications. The primary objective is to analyze system behavior and performance parameters to achieve a target power output of 45 kW, suitable for commercial vehicles. The simulation incorporates real-world duty cycles to evaluate transient responses, thermal management strategies, and hydrogen consumption patterns. The findings of this work aim to provide insights into improving system efficiency, reducing development time, and enhancing cost-effectiveness through virtual prototyping. Furthermore, the study highlights the role of advanced modeling techniques in accelerating LT-PEMFC adoption for sustainable transportation solutions, contributing to global efforts toward decarbonization and clean energy deployment.

Keywords:Fuel cell; PEM; Bop; Simulation; Stack area.

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• Singla MK, Nijhawan P, Oberoi AS. Hydrogen fuel and fuel cell technology for cleaner future: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2021;28:15607–26. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-12231-8.
• Selmi T, Khadhraoui A, Cherif A. Fuel cell–based electric vehicles technologies and challenges. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29:78121–31. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-23171-w.
• Saikia K, Kakati BK, Boro B, Verma A. Current advances and applications of fuel cell technologies. In: Sarangi PK, et al., editors. Recent Advancements in Biofuels and Bioenergy Singapore: Springer; 2018. p. 303–37. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-1307-3_13.
• Karthikeyan S, Sankar GM. Study on selection of fuel cell power configuration for heavy duty truck applications using GT-Simulation. Int J IC Engines Gas Turbines. 2023;9(2): 10–29.
• Hermann A, Chaudhuri T, Spagnol P. Bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells: A review. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2005;30(12):1297–302. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.04.016.
• Subramanian K, Sankar G. A review on hydrogen fuel and storage system product design for PEM fuel cell vehicle SAE Tech Pap. 2023;2023-28-1335. doi: 10.4271/2023-28-1335.
• Xie J, Wood DL, Wayne DM, Zawodzinski TA, Atanassov P, Borup RL. Durability of PEFCs at high humidity conditions. J Electrochem Soc. 2005;152(1):A104–13. doi: 10.1149/1.1830355.
• Enback S, Lindbergh G. Experimentally validated model for CO oxidation on PtRu/C in a porous PEFC electrode. J Electrochem Soc. 2005;152(1): A23–9. doi: 10.1149/1.1825378.
• Ju H, Wang CY. Experimental validation of a PEM fuel cell model by current distribution data. J Electrochem Soc. 2004;151(11): A1954–60. doi: 10.1149/1.1805523.
• Baschuk JJ, Li X. Modelling CO poisoning and O₂ bleeding in a PEM fuel cell anode. Int J Energy Res. 2003;27(12): 1095–116. doi: 10.1002/er.934.
• Costamagna P, Arato E, Achenbach E, Reus U. Fluid dynamic study of fuel cell devices: simulation and             experimental validation. J Power Sources. 1994;52(2):251–60. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(94)02014-002014-0).
• Noponen M, Birgersson E, Ihonen J, Vynnycky M, Lundblad A, Lindbergh G. A two-phase non-isothermal PEFC model: theory and validation. Fuel Cells. 2004;4(4):365–77. doi: 10.1002/fuce.200400048.
• Siegel NP, Ellis MW, Nelson DJ, von Spakovsky MR. A two-dimensional computational model of a PEMFC with liquid water transport. J Power Sources. 2004;128(2):173–84. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.09.072
• Mench MM, Wang CY, Ishikawa M. In situ current distribution measurements in polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J  Electrochem Soc. 2003;150(8):A1052–9. doi: 10.1149/1.1584440.
• St-Pierre J, Roberts J, Colbow K, Campbell S, Nelson A. PEMFC operational and design strategies for subzero environments. J New Mater Electrochem Syst. 2005;8:163–76.
• Hasewend W. AVL Cruise — Driving performance and fuel consumption simulation. ATZ Worldw. 2001;103:10–13. doi: 10.1007/BF03226780.
• Iorga A. Road vehicle simulation using AVL Cruise. Acad Edu. 2016;(25). Available from: https://www.academia.edu/79298754/Road_Vehicle_Simulation_Using_Avl_Cruise.
• O.F. Mechanics. Simulation of a passenger car performance and emissions using the AVL Cruise software. 2011;:95–8. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/68692379/Simulation_of_a_Passenger_Car_Performance_and_Emissions_Using_the_Avl_Cruise_Software.
• AVL - Advanced Simulation Technologies. Cruise vehicle system analysis: AVL Cruise – Vehicle System and Driveline Analysis. AVL Product description. 2009. Available from: https://www.avl.com/docments/10138/1108091/AVL+CRUISE+Product+Description.pdf.
• Evangelou SA, Shabbir W. Dynamic modeling platform for series hybrid electric vehicles. IFAC-Pap Online. 2016;49(11):533–40. doi: 10.1016/j.ifacol.2016.08.078
• Mohamed WANW, Atan R. Analysis of excessive heating on the thermal and electrical resistance of a polymer electrolyte memrane fuel cell. Int J Automot Mech Eng. 2022;5:648–59. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/56220177.

AbstractThe Low-Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (LT-PEMFC) has gained prominence as a promising solution for clean and efficient energy generation, particularly in the automotive industry, where stringent emission norms and sustainability goals are driving innovation. LT-PEMFC systems offer several inherent advantages, including high energy conversion efficiency, low operational temperature, rapid start-up capability, and compatibility with hydrogen as a renewable fuel source. These characteristics make them attractive for commercial vehicle applications, where reliability and performance are critical. Despite these benefits, large-scale commercialization of LT-PEMFC technology remains challenging due to the complexity of system integration and cost considerations. The fuel cell stack must operate in conjunction with multiple Balance of Plant (BoP) components, such as air compressors, humidifiers, heat exchangers, and cooling circuits, which are essential for maintaining optimal operating conditions. Additionally, the selection of catalytic materials and membrane properties significantly influences electrochemical performance and durability. The interdependence of these subsystems often results in increased design complexity, higher manufacturing costs, and reliability concerns, limiting competitiveness against conventional internal combustion engines. To address these challenges, dynamic performance evaluation under realistic operating conditions is crucial. This study focuses on modeling and simulation of an LT-PEMFC system integrated with its BoP components using AVL CRUISE™ M, a widely adopted 1D simulation platform for automotive applications. The primary objective is to analyze system behavior and performance parameters to achieve a target power output of 45 kW, suitable for commercial vehicles. The simulation incorporates real-world duty cycles to evaluate transient responses, thermal management strategies, and hydrogen consumption patterns. The findings of this work aim to provide insights into improving system efficiency, reducing development time, and enhancing cost-effectiveness through virtual prototyping. Furthermore, the study highlights the role of advanced modeling techniques in accelerating LT-PEMFC adoption for sustainable transportation solutions, contributing to global efforts toward decarbonization and clean energy deployment.

Keywords:Fuel cell; PEM; Bop; Simulation; Stack area.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

• Singla MK, Nijhawan P, Oberoi AS. Hydrogen fuel and fuel cell technology for cleaner future: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2021;28:15607–26. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-12231-8.
• Selmi T, Khadhraoui A, Cherif A. Fuel cell–based electric vehicles technologies and challenges. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29:78121–31. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-23171-w.
• Saikia K, Kakati BK, Boro B, Verma A. Current advances and applications of fuel cell technologies. In: Sarangi PK, et al., editors. Recent Advancements in Biofuels and Bioenergy Singapore: Springer; 2018. p. 303–37. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-1307-3_13.
• Karthikeyan S, Sankar GM. Study on selection of fuel cell power configuration for heavy duty truck applications using GT-Simulation. Int J IC Engines Gas Turbines. 2023;9(2): 10–29.
• Hermann A, Chaudhuri T, Spagnol P. Bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells: A review. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2005;30(12):1297–302. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.04.016.
• Subramanian K, Sankar G. A review on hydrogen fuel and storage system product design for PEM fuel cell vehicle SAE Tech Pap. 2023;2023-28-1335. doi: 10.4271/2023-28-1335.
• Xie J, Wood DL, Wayne DM, Zawodzinski TA, Atanassov P, Borup RL. Durability of PEFCs at high humidity conditions. J Electrochem Soc. 2005;152(1):A104–13. doi: 10.1149/1.1830355.
• Enback S, Lindbergh G. Experimentally validated model for CO oxidation on PtRu/C in a porous PEFC electrode. J Electrochem Soc. 2005;152(1): A23–9. doi: 10.1149/1.1825378.
• Ju H, Wang CY. Experimental validation of a PEM fuel cell model by current distribution data. J Electrochem Soc. 2004;151(11): A1954–60. doi: 10.1149/1.1805523.
• Baschuk JJ, Li X. Modelling CO poisoning and O₂ bleeding in a PEM fuel cell anode. Int J Energy Res. 2003;27(12): 1095–116. doi: 10.1002/er.934.
• Costamagna P, Arato E, Achenbach E, Reus U. Fluid dynamic study of fuel cell devices: simulation and             experimental validation. J Power Sources. 1994;52(2):251–60. doi: 10.1016/0378-7753(94)02014-002014-0).
• Noponen M, Birgersson E, Ihonen J, Vynnycky M, Lundblad A, Lindbergh G. A two-phase non-isothermal PEFC model: theory and validation. Fuel Cells. 2004;4(4):365–77. doi: 10.1002/fuce.200400048.
• Siegel NP, Ellis MW, Nelson DJ, von Spakovsky MR. A two-dimensional computational model of a PEMFC with liquid water transport. J Power Sources. 2004;128(2):173–84. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.09.072
• Mench MM, Wang CY, Ishikawa M. In situ current distribution measurements in polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J  Electrochem Soc. 2003;150(8):A1052–9. doi: 10.1149/1.1584440.
• St-Pierre J, Roberts J, Colbow K, Campbell S, Nelson A. PEMFC operational and design strategies for subzero environments. J New Mater Electrochem Syst. 2005;8:163–76.
• Hasewend W. AVL Cruise — Driving performance and fuel consumption simulation. ATZ Worldw. 2001;103:10–13. doi: 10.1007/BF03226780.
• Iorga A. Road vehicle simulation using AVL Cruise. Acad Edu. 2016;(25). Available from: https://www.academia.edu/79298754/Road_Vehicle_Simulation_Using_Avl_Cruise.
• O.F. Mechanics. Simulation of a passenger car performance and emissions using the AVL Cruise software. 2011;:95–8. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/68692379/Simulation_of_a_Passenger_Car_Performance_and_Emissions_Using_the_Avl_Cruise_Software.
• AVL - Advanced Simulation Technologies. Cruise vehicle system analysis: AVL Cruise – Vehicle System and Driveline Analysis. AVL Product description. 2009. Available from: https://www.avl.com/docments/10138/1108091/AVL+CRUISE+Product+Description.pdf.
• Evangelou SA, Shabbir W. Dynamic modeling platform for series hybrid electric vehicles. IFAC-Pap Online. 2016;49(11):533–40. doi: 10.1016/j.ifacol.2016.08.078
• Mohamed WANW, Atan R. Analysis of excessive heating on the thermal and electrical resistance of a polymer electrolyte memrane fuel cell. Int J Automot Mech Eng. 2022;5:648–59. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/56220177.