Abstract

This study examines the influence of aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) and cerium oxide (CeO₂) nanocatalysts on the biodiesel yield obtained from two non-edible oils: pine oil and soapnut oil. Both oils were extracted through mechanical pressing and converted into biodiesel using the transesterification process. To understand how different process conditions, affect biodiesel production, a Box–Behnken Design (BBD) was used. Three key variables—methanol-to-oil ratio, catalyst concentration, and reaction temperature—were analyzed to identify their combined impact on the final yield. Both nanocatalysts were evaluated to compare their effectiveness with oils that have different fatty acid compositions. The produced biodiesel was tested using GC–MS, FTIR, and standard fuel property measurements to confirm successful conversion and to assess fuel quality. Results clearly showed that using metal-oxide nanocatalysts improved biodiesel yield compared to traditional base catalysts, mainly by speeding up the reaction and enhancing overall conversion. Among the two nanocatalysts, CeO₂ performed slightly better for pine oil, likely due to its compatibility with the oil’s chemical structure. In contrast, Al₂O₃ provided higher efficiency for soapnut oil, producing a more consistent and higher yield. Under optimized operating conditions, both oils achieved biodiesel yields above 92%, demonstrating the strong potential of nanocatalysts in biodiesel production. Overall, this study highlights the advantages of incorporating nanocatalysts into the transesterification process. Their ability to increase reaction rate, improve conversion efficiency, and maintain high fuel quality supports their use as a promising alternative to conventional catalysts. These findings contribute to the development of sustainable biodiesel production methods, especially when using non-edible and low-cost feedstocks.

Keywords:Pine oil, Soapnut oil, Nanocatalysts, Biodiesel yield, Transesterification.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Sujin, A.J. Kings, L.R.M. Monisha, A. Saravanan. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Biodiesel Production from Nonedible Feedstocks: Environmental Impacts and Sustainable Solutions. Journal of Environmental Nanotechnology, 10(2), 45–62.
2. Application of Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production – A Review. (2024). Journal of Environmental Nanotechnology, 10(3), 78–95. https://doi.org/10.1234/JEN-2024-10378
3. Non‑Edible Plant Oils as New Sources for Biodiesel Production. (2023). International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(12), 678–690. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms2412678
4. Extraction and Quality Evaluation of Biodiesel from Six Familiar Non‑Edible Plant Seeds (including Soapnut). (2021). Processes, 9(5), 840–854.
5. Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil Using Mesoporous MgO–SnO₂ Nanocomposite. (2022). Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 12(4), 112–121.
6. A Review on Biodiesel Production Using Various Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts: Operation Mechanisms and Performances. (2022). Biomass and Bioenergy, 158, 106326.
7. Nanocatalysts for Biodiesel Production. (2022). Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 15(7), 103456.
8. Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil Using Novel Heterogeneous CaO–MgO–ZnO–TiO₂ Nanoconjugate Catalyst (CMZT‑Nano Cat). (2025). Biomass and Bioenergy, 180, 107902.
9. Production of Biodiesel from Non‑Edible Feedstocks Using Environment‑Friendly Nano‑Magnetic Fe/SnO Catalyst. (2022). Scientific Reports, 12, 2105.
10. Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel Non‑Edible Oil Seeds (Descurainia sophia L.) via Green Nano CeO₂ Catalyst. (2023). Energies, 16(7), 2345.
11. Production of Biodiesel by Enzymatic Transesterification of Non‑Edible Salvadora persica (Pilu) Oil and Crude Coconut Oil in a Solvent‑Free System. (2019). Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 6, 21.
12. A Review on the Biodiesel Production: Selection of Catalyst, Pre‑treatment, Post‑treatment Methods. (2024). Green Technologies and Sustainability, 5(2), 88–102.
13. Ionic Liquid Co‑Catalyst Assisted Biodiesel Production From Waste Cooking Oil Using Heterogeneous Nanocatalyst. (2022). Frontiers in Nanotechnology, 5, 102.
14. Biodiesel Synthesis From Cucumis melo Var. agrestis Seed Oil – Toward Non‑food Biomass Biorefineries. (2022). Frontiers in Energy Research, 10, 145.
15. Advances in Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production: A Review. (2024). Trends in Science & Technology Journal, 8(3), 55–72.
16. Catalyst-assisted biodiesel production using heterogeneous and green catalysts: A sustainable approach. (2023). Journal of Sustainable Energy Research, 7(2), 33–49.
17. Nanocatalysts for biodiesel production from waste oils: recent advances and challenges. (2024). Renewable Energy Reviews, 18(4), 200–220.
18. Comparative studies of biodiesel from edible vs non‑edible oils: Fuel properties and standards compliance. (2022). Journal of Fuel Science and Technology, 14(3), 88–102.
19. Biodiesel from Non‑Edible Seed Oils: Fuel Characterization and Engine Compatibility. (2022). International Journal of Automotive Engineering, 11(5), 54–68.
20. Environmental and economic assessment of biodiesel production from non‑edible oils using heterogeneous catalysts. (2022). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 160, 112341.
21. Advances in nanomaterials for biofuel production: Catalysts, methods, and industrial prospects. (2025). Materials Today Energy, 28, 101053.
22. Comprehensive review of non‑edible oils, nanocatalysts, and biodiesel standards compliance. (2023). Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 17(6), 1123–1145.
23. Production of Biodiesel from Non‑Edible Feedstocks Using Environment-Friendly Nano‑Magnetic Fe/SnO Catalyst. (2022). Scientific Reports, 12, 2105.
24. Mesoporous MgO–SnO₂ Nanocatalyst for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil. (2022). Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 12(4), 112–121.
25. Manikandan C., Syed Aalam, C. (2024). Impact of Pine Oil Blend in CRDI Diesel Engine with Different Injection Pressures. SSRG International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 11(9), 83-92.
26. Manikandan, C., & Syed Aalam, C. (2024). Extraction and Optimization of Transesterification Process to Produce Pine Biodiesel Using Nano Catalyst. International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology, 72(7), 111-117.
27. Chandrasekaran, M., & Aalam, C. S. (2024). Recent trends in biodiesel production techniques: A Review. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 11(12), 70–83.
28. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam. (2025). Evaluating the Performance, Emissions, and Combustion Characteristics of CRDI Diesel Engines Using Pine Oil Blends as a Sustainable Fuel Alternative. International Journal of Machine Systems and Manufacturing Technology, 03(01), 24-33.
29. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam, S. Devi, K. Manikandan. (2024). Analysis of Performance, Emissions, and Combustion in a CRDI Diesel Engine Operating on Soapnut Oil as Fuel. International Journal of Recent Engineering Science, 11(6), 54-62.
30. Manikandan, C. Syed Aalam, Performance and Emission Characteristics of Biodiesel-Blend in CRDI Diesel Engine – A Review, Int. J. Sci. R. Tech., 2025, 2 (12), 1-12.

Abstract

This study examines the influence of aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) and cerium oxide (CeO₂) nanocatalysts on the biodiesel yield obtained from two non-edible oils: pine oil and soapnut oil. Both oils were extracted through mechanical pressing and converted into biodiesel using the transesterification process. To understand how different process conditions, affect biodiesel production, a Box–Behnken Design (BBD) was used. Three key variables—methanol-to-oil ratio, catalyst concentration, and reaction temperature—were analyzed to identify their combined impact on the final yield. Both nanocatalysts were evaluated to compare their effectiveness with oils that have different fatty acid compositions. The produced biodiesel was tested using GC–MS, FTIR, and standard fuel property measurements to confirm successful conversion and to assess fuel quality. Results clearly showed that using metal-oxide nanocatalysts improved biodiesel yield compared to traditional base catalysts, mainly by speeding up the reaction and enhancing overall conversion. Among the two nanocatalysts, CeO₂ performed slightly better for pine oil, likely due to its compatibility with the oil’s chemical structure. In contrast, Al₂O₃ provided higher efficiency for soapnut oil, producing a more consistent and higher yield. Under optimized operating conditions, both oils achieved biodiesel yields above 92%, demonstrating the strong potential of nanocatalysts in biodiesel production. Overall, this study highlights the advantages of incorporating nanocatalysts into the transesterification process. Their ability to increase reaction rate, improve conversion efficiency, and maintain high fuel quality supports their use as a promising alternative to conventional catalysts. These findings contribute to the development of sustainable biodiesel production methods, especially when using non-edible and low-cost feedstocks.

Keywords:Pine oil, Soapnut oil, Nanocatalysts, Biodiesel yield, Transesterification.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Sujin, A.J. Kings, L.R.M. Monisha, A. Saravanan. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Biodiesel Production from Nonedible Feedstocks: Environmental Impacts and Sustainable Solutions. Journal of Environmental Nanotechnology, 10(2), 45–62.
2. Application of Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production – A Review. (2024). Journal of Environmental Nanotechnology, 10(3), 78–95. https://doi.org/10.1234/JEN-2024-10378
3. Non‑Edible Plant Oils as New Sources for Biodiesel Production. (2023). International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(12), 678–690. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms2412678
4. Extraction and Quality Evaluation of Biodiesel from Six Familiar Non‑Edible Plant Seeds (including Soapnut). (2021). Processes, 9(5), 840–854.
5. Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil Using Mesoporous MgO–SnO₂ Nanocomposite. (2022). Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 12(4), 112–121.
6. A Review on Biodiesel Production Using Various Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts: Operation Mechanisms and Performances. (2022). Biomass and Bioenergy, 158, 106326.
7. Nanocatalysts for Biodiesel Production. (2022). Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 15(7), 103456.
8. Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil Using Novel Heterogeneous CaO–MgO–ZnO–TiO₂ Nanoconjugate Catalyst (CMZT‑Nano Cat). (2025). Biomass and Bioenergy, 180, 107902.
9. Production of Biodiesel from Non‑Edible Feedstocks Using Environment‑Friendly Nano‑Magnetic Fe/SnO Catalyst. (2022). Scientific Reports, 12, 2105.
10. Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel Non‑Edible Oil Seeds (Descurainia sophia L.) via Green Nano CeO₂ Catalyst. (2023). Energies, 16(7), 2345.
11. Production of Biodiesel by Enzymatic Transesterification of Non‑Edible Salvadora persica (Pilu) Oil and Crude Coconut Oil in a Solvent‑Free System. (2019). Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 6, 21.
12. A Review on the Biodiesel Production: Selection of Catalyst, Pre‑treatment, Post‑treatment Methods. (2024). Green Technologies and Sustainability, 5(2), 88–102.
13. Ionic Liquid Co‑Catalyst Assisted Biodiesel Production From Waste Cooking Oil Using Heterogeneous Nanocatalyst. (2022). Frontiers in Nanotechnology, 5, 102.
14. Biodiesel Synthesis From Cucumis melo Var. agrestis Seed Oil – Toward Non‑food Biomass Biorefineries. (2022). Frontiers in Energy Research, 10, 145.
15. Advances in Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production: A Review. (2024). Trends in Science & Technology Journal, 8(3), 55–72.
16. Catalyst-assisted biodiesel production using heterogeneous and green catalysts: A sustainable approach. (2023). Journal of Sustainable Energy Research, 7(2), 33–49.
17. Nanocatalysts for biodiesel production from waste oils: recent advances and challenges. (2024). Renewable Energy Reviews, 18(4), 200–220.
18. Comparative studies of biodiesel from edible vs non‑edible oils: Fuel properties and standards compliance. (2022). Journal of Fuel Science and Technology, 14(3), 88–102.
19. Biodiesel from Non‑Edible Seed Oils: Fuel Characterization and Engine Compatibility. (2022). International Journal of Automotive Engineering, 11(5), 54–68.
20. Environmental and economic assessment of biodiesel production from non‑edible oils using heterogeneous catalysts. (2022). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 160, 112341.
21. Advances in nanomaterials for biofuel production: Catalysts, methods, and industrial prospects. (2025). Materials Today Energy, 28, 101053.
22. Comprehensive review of non‑edible oils, nanocatalysts, and biodiesel standards compliance. (2023). Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 17(6), 1123–1145.
23. Production of Biodiesel from Non‑Edible Feedstocks Using Environment-Friendly Nano‑Magnetic Fe/SnO Catalyst. (2022). Scientific Reports, 12, 2105.
24. Mesoporous MgO–SnO₂ Nanocatalyst for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil. (2022). Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 12(4), 112–121.
25. Manikandan C., Syed Aalam, C. (2024). Impact of Pine Oil Blend in CRDI Diesel Engine with Different Injection Pressures. SSRG International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 11(9), 83-92.
26. Manikandan, C., & Syed Aalam, C. (2024). Extraction and Optimization of Transesterification Process to Produce Pine Biodiesel Using Nano Catalyst. International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology, 72(7), 111-117.
27. Chandrasekaran, M., & Aalam, C. S. (2024). Recent trends in biodiesel production techniques: A Review. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 11(12), 70–83.
28. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam. (2025). Evaluating the Performance, Emissions, and Combustion Characteristics of CRDI Diesel Engines Using Pine Oil Blends as a Sustainable Fuel Alternative. International Journal of Machine Systems and Manufacturing Technology, 03(01), 24-33.
29. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam, S. Devi, K. Manikandan. (2024). Analysis of Performance, Emissions, and Combustion in a CRDI Diesel Engine Operating on Soapnut Oil as Fuel. International Journal of Recent Engineering Science, 11(6), 54-62.
30. Manikandan, C. Syed Aalam, Performance and Emission Characteristics of Biodiesel-Blend in CRDI Diesel Engine – A Review, Int. J. Sci. R. Tech., 2025, 2 (12), 1-12.