Abstract
Plastic pollution has become a major global environmental issue, affecting land, water, and living organisms. This review summarizes current research on how waste plastics enter the environment, how they move and break down, and the effects they create in ecosystems and on human health. Special attention is given to the growing problem of microplastics, which continue to accumulate in soil, freshwater bodies, and oceans. The review also discusses recent progress in converting waste plastics into usable oil through processes such as pyrolysis, catalytic cracking, and hydrothermal liquefaction. These methods show strong potential for recovering energy from plastic waste, producing oils that can be refined into fuel. However, challenges remain, including inconsistent oil quality, high energy demand, and the need for improved process control. Each conversion method has specific advantages and limitations, and further research is needed to make them more efficient and environmentally friendly. Another key focus of this review is the use of waste plastic oil (WPO) as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Studies show that blending WPO with diesel can provide acceptable engine performance, especially at low blend ratios. Combustion characteristics such as ignition delay and fuel atomization influence how these blends behave inside the engine. While WPO blends can reduce certain emissions like particulate matter and carbon monoxide, they may increase nitrogen and sulfur oxides due to fuel composition. Engine modifications and emission-control technologies are therefore important to ensure cleaner operation. Overall, this review highlights both the opportunities and the challenges associated with converting plastic waste into fuel. Continued research is essential to improve conversion technologies, enhance fuel stability, reduce emissions, and support the development of waste plastic oil as a reliable and sustainable alternative energy source.

Keywords:Waste Plastics, Environmental, Diesel Engine, Emission, Performance.

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Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Geyer, Roland, Jenna R. Jambeck, and Kara Lavender Law. "Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made." Science advances3, no. 7 (2017): e1700782.
2. Sharma, Shivika, and Subhankar Chatterjee. "Microplastic pollution, a threat to marine ecosystem and human health: a short review." Environmental Science and Pollution Research24 (2017): 21530-21547.
3. Jambeck, Jenna R., Roland Geyer, Chris Wilcox, Theodore R. Siegler, Miriam Perryman, Anthony Andrady, Ramani Narayan, and Kara Lavender Law. "Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean." science347, no. 6223 (2015): 768-771.
4. Andrady, Anthony L. "Microplastics in the marine environment." Marine pollution bulletin62, no. 8 (2011): 1596-1605.
5. Verma, Rinku, K. S. Vinoda, M. Papireddy, and A. N. S. Gowda. "Toxic pollutants from plastic waste-a review." Procedia Environmental Sciences35 (2016): 701-708.
6. Qadir, Warzer, Kawan Ghafor, and Ahmed Mohammed. "Evaluation the effect of lime on the plastic and hardened properties of cement mortar and quantified using Vipulanandan model." Open Engineering9, no. 1 (2019): 468-480.
7. Cole, Matthew, Pennie Lindeque, Claudia Halsband, and Tamara S. Galloway. "Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review." Marine pollution bulletin62, no. 12 (2011): 2588-2597.
8. Thompson, Richard C., Ylva Olsen, Richard P. Mitchell, Anthony Davis, Steven J. Rowland, Anthony WG John, Daniel McGonigle, and Andrea E. Russell. "Lost at sea: where is all the plastic?" Science304, no. 5672 (2004): 838-838.
9. Rillig, Matthias C., Rosolino Ingraffia, and Anderson A. de Souza Machado. "Microplastic incorporation into soil in agroecosystems." Frontiers in plant science8 (2017): 1805.
10. Wagner, Martin, Christian Scherer, Diana Alvarez-Muñoz, Nicole Brennholt, Xavier Bourrain, Sebastian Buchinger, Elke Fries et al. "Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know." Environmental Sciences Europe26, no. 1 (2014): 1-9.
11. Van Cauwenberghe, Lisbeth, and Colin R. Janssen. "Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption." Environmental pollution193 (2014): 65-70.
12. Teuten, Emma L., Jovita M. Saquing, Detlef RU Knappe, Morton A. Barlaz, Susanne Jonsson, Annika Björn, Steven J. Rowland et al. "Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife." Philosophical transactions of the royal society B: biological sciences364, no. 1526 (2009): 2027-2045.
13. Xanthos, Dirk, and Tony R. Walker. "International policies to reduce plastic marine pollution from single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads): A review." Marine pollution bulletin118, no. 1-2 (2017): 17-26.
14. Hopewell, Jefferson, Robert Dvorak, and Edward Kosior. "Plastics recycling: challenges and opportunities." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences364, no. 1526 (2009): 2115-2126.
15. Jambeck, Jenna, Ellie Moss, Brajesh Dubey, Zainal Arifin, Linda Godfrey, Britta Denise Hardesty, I. Gede Hendrawan et al. "Leveraging multi-target strategies to address plastic pollution in the context of an already stressed ocean." In The Blue Compendium: From Knowledge to Action for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, pp. 141-184. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023.
16. Zheng, Jiajia, and Sangwon Suh. "Strategies to reduce the global carbon footprint of plastics." Nature climate change9, no. 5 (2019): 374-378.
17. Raubenheimer, Karen, Alistair McIlgorm, and Nilüfer Oral. "Towards an improved international framework to govern the life cycle of plastics." Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law27, no. 3 (2018): 210-221.
18. Okoffo, Elvis D., Erica Donner, Steve P. McGrath, Benjamin J. Tscharke, Jake W. O'Brien, Stacey O'Brien, Francisca Ribeiro et al. "Plastics in biosolids from 1950 to 2016: A function of global plastic production and consumption." Water Research201 (2021): 117367.
19. Astrup, Thomas, Christian Riber, and Anne Juul Pedersen. "Incinerator performance: effects of changes in waste input and furnace operation on air emissions and residues." Waste Management & Research29, no. 10_suppl (2011): S57-S68.
20. Sharuddin, Shafferina Dayana Anuar, Faisal Abnisa, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud, and Mohamed KheireddineAroua. "A review on pyrolysis of plastic wastes." Energy conversion and management115 (2016): 308-326.
21. Ahmed, I. I., and A. K. Gupta. "Hydrogen production from polystyrene pyrolysis and gasification: Characteristics and kinetics." International journal of hydrogen energy34, no. 15 (2009): 6253-6264.
22. Butler, Eoin, Ger Devlin, and Kevin McDonnell. "Waste polyolefins to liquid fuels via pyrolysis: review of commercial state-of-the-art and recent laboratory research." Waste and biomass valorization2 (2011): 227-255.
23. Aguado, J., D. P. Serrano, and J. M. Escola. "Fuels from waste plastics by thermal and catalytic processes: a review." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research47, no. 21 (2008): 7982-7992.
24. Syamsiro, Mochamad, Harwin Saptoadi, Tinton Norsujianto, Putri Noviasri, Shuo Cheng, Zainal Alimuddin, and Kunio Yoshikawa. "Fuel oil production from municipal plastic wastes in sequential pyrolysis and catalytic reforming reactors." Energy Procedia47 (2014): 180-188.
25. Kadapure, Santosh A., K. Arush, C. Sagar, S. Shreshtha, M. Sangeeta, J. Sukanya, R. T. Devdatt, S. Sabhya, B. L. Navya, and T. Amit. "Tertiary recycling of waste plastic using catalytic cracking into crude oil." Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, And Environmental Effects38, no. 19 (2016): 2942-2948.
26. Anastasakis, Konstantinos, Patrick Biller, René B. Madsen, Marianne Glasius, and Ib Johannsen. "Continuous hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass in a novel pilot plant with heat recovery and hydraulic oscillation." Energies11, no. 10 (2018): 2695.
27. Chaudhary, Savita, Manisha Kumari, Pooja Chauhan, and Ganga Ram Chaudhary. "Upcycling of plastic waste into fluorescent carbon dots: An environmentally viable transformation to biocompatible C-dots with potential prospective in analytical applications." Waste Management120 (2021): 675-686.
28. Toor, Saqib Sohail, L. Rosendahl, and I. Sintamarean. "Recipe-based co-HTL of biomass and organic waste." In Direct thermochemical liquefaction for energy applications, pp. 169-189. Woodhead Publishing, 2018.
29. Miskolczi, N., L. Bartha, and A. Angyal. "Pyrolysis of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-containing mixed plastic wastes for recovery of hydrocarbons." Energy & Fuels23, no. 5 (2009): 2743-2749.
30. Panda, Ananya, Ishan Garg, Mark J. Truty, Timothy L. Kline, Matthew P. Johnson, Eric C. Ehman, Garima Suman et al. "Borderline resectable and locally advanced pancreatic cancer: FDG PET/MRI and CT tumor metrics for assessment of pathologic response to neoadjuvant therapy and prediction of survival." American Journal of Roentgenology217, no. 3 (2021): 730-740.
31. Sharuddin, Shafferina Dayana Anuar, Faisal Abnisa, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud, and Mohamed KheireddineAroua. "A review on pyrolysis of plastic wastes." Energy conversion and management115 (2016): 308-326.
32. Butler, Eoin, Ger Devlin, and Kevin McDonnell. "Waste polyolefins to liquid fuels via pyrolysis: review of commercial state-of-the-art and recent laboratory research." Waste and biomass valorization2 (2011): 227-255.
33. Miandad, R., M. A. Barakat, M. Rehan, A. S. Aburiazaiza, I. M. I. Ismail, and A. S. Nizami. "Plastic waste to liquid oil through catalytic pyrolysis using natural and synthetic zeolite catalysts." Waste Management69 (2017): 66-78.
34. Manikandan, C. Syed Aalam, "Impact of Pine Oil Blend in CRDI Diesel Engine with Different Injection Pressures," SSRG International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 83-92, 2024. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23488360/IJME-V11I9P107
35. Manikandan, C. Syed Aalam, "Extraction and Optimization of Transesterification Process to Produce Pine Biodiesel Using Nano Catalyst," International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology, vol. 72, no. 7, pp. 111-117, 2024. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V72I7P112
36. Kumar, Rajan, M. K. Mishra, S. K. Singh, and Arbind Kumar. "Experimental evaluation of waste plastic oil and its blends on a single cylinder diesel engine." Journal of mechanical science and technology30 (2016): 4781-4789.
37. Panda, Achyut K., S. Murugan, and R. K. Singh. "Performance and emission characteristics of diesel fuel produced from waste plastic oil obtained by catalytic pyrolysis of waste polypropylene." Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects38, no. 4 (2016): 568-576.
38. Chandrasekaran, M. and Aalam, C.S. (2024) ‘Recent trends in biodiesel production techniques: A Review’, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 11(12), pp. 70–83. doi:10.22161/ijaers.1112.9.
39. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam. Evaluating the Performance, Emissions, and Combustion Characteristics of CRDI Diesel Engines Using Pine Oil Blends as a Sustainable Fuel Alternative. International Journal of Machine Systems and Manufacturing Technology. 2025; 03(01):24-33.
40. Gnanasikamani, Balaji, Sathish Kumar Rajamanickam, Suresh Kumar Kasinathan, and Cheralathan Marimuthu. Experimental investigation on an EGR based diesel engine fueled with the blend of diesel and plastic oil and an antioxidant additive. No. 2019-28-0079. SAE Technical Paper, 2019.
41. Venkatesan, Hariram, Seralathan Sivamani, Kunal Bhutoria, and Harsh H. Vora. "Assessment of waste plastic oil blends on performance, combustion and emission parameters in direct injection compression ignition engine." International Journal of Ambient Energy40, no. 2 (2019): 170-178.
42. Mangesh, V. L., S. Padmanabhan, P. Tamizhdurai, and A. Ramesh. "Experimental investigation to identify the type of waste plastic pyrolysis oil suitable for conversion to diesel engine fuel." Journal of Cleaner Production246 (2020): 119066.
43. Sharma, Vikas, Abul Kalam Hossain, Gareth Griffiths, Ganesh Duraisamy, Anand Krishnasamy, Vinu Ravikrishnan, and Jose Ricardo Sodre. "Plastic waste to liquid fuel: A review of technologies, applications, and challenges." Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments53 (2022): 102651.
44. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam, S. Devi, K. Manikandan, "Analysis of Performance, Emissions, and Combustion in a CRDI Diesel Engine Operating on Soapnut Oil as Fuel," International Journal of Recent Engineering Science, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 54-62, 2024. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23497157/IJRES-V11I6P106.

Abstract
Plastic pollution has become a major global environmental issue, affecting land, water, and living organisms. This review summarizes current research on how waste plastics enter the environment, how they move and break down, and the effects they create in ecosystems and on human health. Special attention is given to the growing problem of microplastics, which continue to accumulate in soil, freshwater bodies, and oceans. The review also discusses recent progress in converting waste plastics into usable oil through processes such as pyrolysis, catalytic cracking, and hydrothermal liquefaction. These methods show strong potential for recovering energy from plastic waste, producing oils that can be refined into fuel. However, challenges remain, including inconsistent oil quality, high energy demand, and the need for improved process control. Each conversion method has specific advantages and limitations, and further research is needed to make them more efficient and environmentally friendly. Another key focus of this review is the use of waste plastic oil (WPO) as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Studies show that blending WPO with diesel can provide acceptable engine performance, especially at low blend ratios. Combustion characteristics such as ignition delay and fuel atomization influence how these blends behave inside the engine. While WPO blends can reduce certain emissions like particulate matter and carbon monoxide, they may increase nitrogen and sulfur oxides due to fuel composition. Engine modifications and emission-control technologies are therefore important to ensure cleaner operation. Overall, this review highlights both the opportunities and the challenges associated with converting plastic waste into fuel. Continued research is essential to improve conversion technologies, enhance fuel stability, reduce emissions, and support the development of waste plastic oil as a reliable and sustainable alternative energy source.

Keywords:Waste Plastics, Environmental, Diesel Engine, Emission, Performance.

🔒 This is a subscription article

Full text is available to subscribers and institutional members. Please choose an option below to access it.

1. Geyer, Roland, Jenna R. Jambeck, and Kara Lavender Law. "Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made." Science advances3, no. 7 (2017): e1700782.
2. Sharma, Shivika, and Subhankar Chatterjee. "Microplastic pollution, a threat to marine ecosystem and human health: a short review." Environmental Science and Pollution Research24 (2017): 21530-21547.
3. Jambeck, Jenna R., Roland Geyer, Chris Wilcox, Theodore R. Siegler, Miriam Perryman, Anthony Andrady, Ramani Narayan, and Kara Lavender Law. "Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean." science347, no. 6223 (2015): 768-771.
4. Andrady, Anthony L. "Microplastics in the marine environment." Marine pollution bulletin62, no. 8 (2011): 1596-1605.
5. Verma, Rinku, K. S. Vinoda, M. Papireddy, and A. N. S. Gowda. "Toxic pollutants from plastic waste-a review." Procedia Environmental Sciences35 (2016): 701-708.
6. Qadir, Warzer, Kawan Ghafor, and Ahmed Mohammed. "Evaluation the effect of lime on the plastic and hardened properties of cement mortar and quantified using Vipulanandan model." Open Engineering9, no. 1 (2019): 468-480.
7. Cole, Matthew, Pennie Lindeque, Claudia Halsband, and Tamara S. Galloway. "Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review." Marine pollution bulletin62, no. 12 (2011): 2588-2597.
8. Thompson, Richard C., Ylva Olsen, Richard P. Mitchell, Anthony Davis, Steven J. Rowland, Anthony WG John, Daniel McGonigle, and Andrea E. Russell. "Lost at sea: where is all the plastic?" Science304, no. 5672 (2004): 838-838.
9. Rillig, Matthias C., Rosolino Ingraffia, and Anderson A. de Souza Machado. "Microplastic incorporation into soil in agroecosystems." Frontiers in plant science8 (2017): 1805.
10. Wagner, Martin, Christian Scherer, Diana Alvarez-Muñoz, Nicole Brennholt, Xavier Bourrain, Sebastian Buchinger, Elke Fries et al. "Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know." Environmental Sciences Europe26, no. 1 (2014): 1-9.
11. Van Cauwenberghe, Lisbeth, and Colin R. Janssen. "Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption." Environmental pollution193 (2014): 65-70.
12. Teuten, Emma L., Jovita M. Saquing, Detlef RU Knappe, Morton A. Barlaz, Susanne Jonsson, Annika Björn, Steven J. Rowland et al. "Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife." Philosophical transactions of the royal society B: biological sciences364, no. 1526 (2009): 2027-2045.
13. Xanthos, Dirk, and Tony R. Walker. "International policies to reduce plastic marine pollution from single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads): A review." Marine pollution bulletin118, no. 1-2 (2017): 17-26.
14. Hopewell, Jefferson, Robert Dvorak, and Edward Kosior. "Plastics recycling: challenges and opportunities." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences364, no. 1526 (2009): 2115-2126.
15. Jambeck, Jenna, Ellie Moss, Brajesh Dubey, Zainal Arifin, Linda Godfrey, Britta Denise Hardesty, I. Gede Hendrawan et al. "Leveraging multi-target strategies to address plastic pollution in the context of an already stressed ocean." In The Blue Compendium: From Knowledge to Action for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, pp. 141-184. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023.
16. Zheng, Jiajia, and Sangwon Suh. "Strategies to reduce the global carbon footprint of plastics." Nature climate change9, no. 5 (2019): 374-378.
17. Raubenheimer, Karen, Alistair McIlgorm, and Nilüfer Oral. "Towards an improved international framework to govern the life cycle of plastics." Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law27, no. 3 (2018): 210-221.
18. Okoffo, Elvis D., Erica Donner, Steve P. McGrath, Benjamin J. Tscharke, Jake W. O'Brien, Stacey O'Brien, Francisca Ribeiro et al. "Plastics in biosolids from 1950 to 2016: A function of global plastic production and consumption." Water Research201 (2021): 117367.
19. Astrup, Thomas, Christian Riber, and Anne Juul Pedersen. "Incinerator performance: effects of changes in waste input and furnace operation on air emissions and residues." Waste Management & Research29, no. 10_suppl (2011): S57-S68.
20. Sharuddin, Shafferina Dayana Anuar, Faisal Abnisa, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud, and Mohamed KheireddineAroua. "A review on pyrolysis of plastic wastes." Energy conversion and management115 (2016): 308-326.
21. Ahmed, I. I., and A. K. Gupta. "Hydrogen production from polystyrene pyrolysis and gasification: Characteristics and kinetics." International journal of hydrogen energy34, no. 15 (2009): 6253-6264.
22. Butler, Eoin, Ger Devlin, and Kevin McDonnell. "Waste polyolefins to liquid fuels via pyrolysis: review of commercial state-of-the-art and recent laboratory research." Waste and biomass valorization2 (2011): 227-255.
23. Aguado, J., D. P. Serrano, and J. M. Escola. "Fuels from waste plastics by thermal and catalytic processes: a review." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research47, no. 21 (2008): 7982-7992.
24. Syamsiro, Mochamad, Harwin Saptoadi, Tinton Norsujianto, Putri Noviasri, Shuo Cheng, Zainal Alimuddin, and Kunio Yoshikawa. "Fuel oil production from municipal plastic wastes in sequential pyrolysis and catalytic reforming reactors." Energy Procedia47 (2014): 180-188.
25. Kadapure, Santosh A., K. Arush, C. Sagar, S. Shreshtha, M. Sangeeta, J. Sukanya, R. T. Devdatt, S. Sabhya, B. L. Navya, and T. Amit. "Tertiary recycling of waste plastic using catalytic cracking into crude oil." Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, And Environmental Effects38, no. 19 (2016): 2942-2948.
26. Anastasakis, Konstantinos, Patrick Biller, René B. Madsen, Marianne Glasius, and Ib Johannsen. "Continuous hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass in a novel pilot plant with heat recovery and hydraulic oscillation." Energies11, no. 10 (2018): 2695.
27. Chaudhary, Savita, Manisha Kumari, Pooja Chauhan, and Ganga Ram Chaudhary. "Upcycling of plastic waste into fluorescent carbon dots: An environmentally viable transformation to biocompatible C-dots with potential prospective in analytical applications." Waste Management120 (2021): 675-686.
28. Toor, Saqib Sohail, L. Rosendahl, and I. Sintamarean. "Recipe-based co-HTL of biomass and organic waste." In Direct thermochemical liquefaction for energy applications, pp. 169-189. Woodhead Publishing, 2018.
29. Miskolczi, N., L. Bartha, and A. Angyal. "Pyrolysis of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-containing mixed plastic wastes for recovery of hydrocarbons." Energy & Fuels23, no. 5 (2009): 2743-2749.
30. Panda, Ananya, Ishan Garg, Mark J. Truty, Timothy L. Kline, Matthew P. Johnson, Eric C. Ehman, Garima Suman et al. "Borderline resectable and locally advanced pancreatic cancer: FDG PET/MRI and CT tumor metrics for assessment of pathologic response to neoadjuvant therapy and prediction of survival." American Journal of Roentgenology217, no. 3 (2021): 730-740.
31. Sharuddin, Shafferina Dayana Anuar, Faisal Abnisa, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud, and Mohamed KheireddineAroua. "A review on pyrolysis of plastic wastes." Energy conversion and management115 (2016): 308-326.
32. Butler, Eoin, Ger Devlin, and Kevin McDonnell. "Waste polyolefins to liquid fuels via pyrolysis: review of commercial state-of-the-art and recent laboratory research." Waste and biomass valorization2 (2011): 227-255.
33. Miandad, R., M. A. Barakat, M. Rehan, A. S. Aburiazaiza, I. M. I. Ismail, and A. S. Nizami. "Plastic waste to liquid oil through catalytic pyrolysis using natural and synthetic zeolite catalysts." Waste Management69 (2017): 66-78.
34. Manikandan, C. Syed Aalam, "Impact of Pine Oil Blend in CRDI Diesel Engine with Different Injection Pressures," SSRG International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 83-92, 2024. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23488360/IJME-V11I9P107
35. Manikandan, C. Syed Aalam, "Extraction and Optimization of Transesterification Process to Produce Pine Biodiesel Using Nano Catalyst," International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology, vol. 72, no. 7, pp. 111-117, 2024. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V72I7P112
36. Kumar, Rajan, M. K. Mishra, S. K. Singh, and Arbind Kumar. "Experimental evaluation of waste plastic oil and its blends on a single cylinder diesel engine." Journal of mechanical science and technology30 (2016): 4781-4789.
37. Panda, Achyut K., S. Murugan, and R. K. Singh. "Performance and emission characteristics of diesel fuel produced from waste plastic oil obtained by catalytic pyrolysis of waste polypropylene." Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects38, no. 4 (2016): 568-576.
38. Chandrasekaran, M. and Aalam, C.S. (2024) ‘Recent trends in biodiesel production techniques: A Review’, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 11(12), pp. 70–83. doi:10.22161/ijaers.1112.9.
39. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam. Evaluating the Performance, Emissions, and Combustion Characteristics of CRDI Diesel Engines Using Pine Oil Blends as a Sustainable Fuel Alternative. International Journal of Machine Systems and Manufacturing Technology. 2025; 03(01):24-33.
40. Gnanasikamani, Balaji, Sathish Kumar Rajamanickam, Suresh Kumar Kasinathan, and Cheralathan Marimuthu. Experimental investigation on an EGR based diesel engine fueled with the blend of diesel and plastic oil and an antioxidant additive. No. 2019-28-0079. SAE Technical Paper, 2019.
41. Venkatesan, Hariram, Seralathan Sivamani, Kunal Bhutoria, and Harsh H. Vora. "Assessment of waste plastic oil blends on performance, combustion and emission parameters in direct injection compression ignition engine." International Journal of Ambient Energy40, no. 2 (2019): 170-178.
42. Mangesh, V. L., S. Padmanabhan, P. Tamizhdurai, and A. Ramesh. "Experimental investigation to identify the type of waste plastic pyrolysis oil suitable for conversion to diesel engine fuel." Journal of Cleaner Production246 (2020): 119066.
43. Sharma, Vikas, Abul Kalam Hossain, Gareth Griffiths, Ganesh Duraisamy, Anand Krishnasamy, Vinu Ravikrishnan, and Jose Ricardo Sodre. "Plastic waste to liquid fuel: A review of technologies, applications, and challenges." Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments53 (2022): 102651.
44. Manikandan Chandrasekaran, C. Syed Aalam, S. Devi, K. Manikandan, "Analysis of Performance, Emissions, and Combustion in a CRDI Diesel Engine Operating on Soapnut Oil as Fuel," International Journal of Recent Engineering Science, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 54-62, 2024. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23497157/IJRES-V11I6P106.